City-States

With its many universities, museums and libraries, Bogota has been nicknamed "the Athens of South America," a tribute to its long and rich cultural heritage. It was founded by the Spaniard Gonzalo Jimenez de Quesada, who in 1536 AD led an expedition of 500 conquistadors into the Rio Grande de la Magdalena in search of El Dorado. In clashes with the indigenous Muiscas, they plundered the temples at Zaque Quemuenchatocha and Sogamoso, taking emeralds and gold. But by March 1537 only 70 men remained and Quesada decided to build a settlement to serve as a base, locating it on a plateau in the northern Andes near what would be known as the Bogota River. In 1553 the central plaza was constructed, and a cathedral and government buildings begun. The town became the capital of the crown colony of New Grenada, and remained a viceroyship until it achieved independence under Simon Bolivar in 1819. In the following years, it served as the capital city of "Gran Columbia" (until 1830), then the Republic of New Grenada (1863), then of the United States of Columbia through 1886, when the current Republic of Columbia came into existence.

Throughout these changes, Bogota flowered as the educational and cultural center of the nation, whatever form it took. In 1823, the town’s public library was expanded, modernized and became the National Library. A few years later, a National Museum was founded. The first "State School," precursor to the National University of Columbia, was established in 1867. Due to its relative isolation, the city became a mecca for authors and poets looking to create new trends distinct from South American Spanish literary traditions, and from the mid-1800s to the mid-1900s was home to such great writers as Jose Asuncion Silva and Rafael Pombo. Despite bouts of civil unrest and civil war, the city was also a favorite haven of artists; in 1886, the National School of Beaux Arts was founded. Its status as one of the most culturally-rich cities of the world was formally recognized in 2007, when UNESCO named Bogota a World Book Capital, only the second one in the Western hemisphere (along with Montreal, Canada).

The economic and cultural center of Slovakia, Bratislava is home to several renowned universities, museums, theaters, art galleries and other Slavic cultural institutions. Lying at the confluence of the Danube and Morava rivers, the first known settlement on the site of the city was in the Neolithic Era around 5000 BC. Later inhabited and fortified by the Celts, the area fell under Roman control in the 1st Century AD. Besides the amenities of Roman civilization - roads, theaters, public baths, libraries and the like - they introduced grapevines to the area around the fortress, and began a tradition of fine winemaking that has survived.

Renamed Pressburg, the strategic city became part of the Kingdom of Hungary in the 10th Century; there the first Slavic university, the Istropolitana Acadenmy, was founded in 1467. Under the Hapsburgs, it was home to archbishops, nobility, merchants, artisans, and kings. Bratislava flourished in the 1700s, especially during the reign of Maria Theresa, who made it the largest and most important town in the region. The city figured prominently in the classical movement of the period: Wolfgang Mozart gave a concert in 1762; Joseph Haydn performed in 1784; Beethoven was a guest while composing in 1796; Liszt and Bartok lived there for short periods. The world's first technical university opened as the Banska Akademia in 1762. Meanwhile, initiatives were launched to promote and preserve the Slavic language and literature in new libraries; the first Slovak language newspaper, the Presspurske Nowiny, began publishing in 1783.

Following the First World War and dissolution of Austria-Hungary, Bratislava was made the capital of Slovakia in the first Czechoslovakian Republic, and remained the capital when Slovakia emerged as an independent nation following the withdrawal of Soviet troops in 1993. Bratislava has since been declared "the soul, if not the heart, of Slavic culture."

Brussels was officially founded along the banks of the Senne River in 979 AD, when Charles of Lorraine, a descendent of Charlemagne, constructed the first permanent fortification around a small Catholic chapel and township. The early city lay low along the river and was often at risk of floods, giving it its Dutch name Broeksel, or, "home in the marsh". City walls, constructed and expanded during the 11th to 14th centuries, allowed for a period of growth, expansion, and for a general peaceful existence, uncommon for the times.

The peace ended violently in 1695, when King Louis XIV of France sent troops to Brussels and bombarded the city with artillery, destroying the Grand Palace and nearly a third of the city in one attack, the most destructive event in the entire history of the city. This invasion brought a "Frenchification" to the region, in both culture and language. In 1830 the southern French-speaking provinces of the United Kingdom of the Netherlands seceded from the Dutch-speaking provinces in the Belgian Revolution, the conflict taking place for the most part in Brussels. Following Belgian independence, the new king Leopold I began the massive undertaking of destroying the old city walls to make way for new construction and more modern buildings. It also helped his cause that by this point the Senne, the previous life-blood of the city, had become a serious health hazard and its entire urban area was buried over and rebuilt.

Brussels escaped the World Wars with little damage (even though Belgium was invaded by Germany on both occasions), largely in part to its adamant policy of remaining neutral. It is this neutrality which has made the city a modern-day center for international politics and the de facto capital city of the European Union (the EU) and the headquarters of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO). The only major controversy in the otherwise peaceful city revolves around the laws governing the language borders between the French and Dutch speaking municipalities, a tension mirrored in the rest of Belgium as a whole.

Lying along the banks of the Dâmbovita River, Bucharest is the capital and largest city of Romania. Archeological excavations have shown that people have lived in the Bucharest area from as early as 9,000 BC, but the city of Bucharest was not mentioned until 1459 AD in a document signed by Vlad III, the Impaler. Vlad III built the first fortress and his summer residence at Bucharest at this time in an attempt to hold back the encroaching Ottoman forces, but to little avail. In the early 17th century the city was burned down by the Ottomans, who then captured and rebuilt it.

Bucharest developed rapidly under the Ottomans and became the main economic center and capital of the seized Walachia region in 1659. Over the next two hundred years, Bucharest was almost destroyed by natural disasters many times, (stubbornly rebuilt after every occurrence), ravaged by the Bubonic plague, and was occupied repeatedly by both the Habsburg Monarchy and Imperial Russia, ultimately residing under the Russians.

Walachia remained under Russian rule until a series of civic unrests in Bucharest helped to unify the Walachia and Moldavia regions, forming the state of Romania in 1859; Bucharest was named its capital in 1862. As the capital of the new kingdom, the city's population increased dramatically and large-scale architectural projects were begun. The extravagance shown by Bucharest's residences at this time earned it the nickname "The Paris of the East".

While escaping relatively unscathed during the First World War, Bucharest suffered substantial damage during World War II, primarily from heavy Allied bombings. After the wars, much of the old historic district of the city was torn down to make way for high-rise apartment buildings commissioned by the Communist government, and a massive earthquake in 1977 destroyed many of the remaining historic neighborhoods.

The Romanian Revolution of 1989 ended Communist rule in Romania when many disillusioned and dissatisfied protesters gathered in Bucharest. While at a speech being delivered by President Nicolae Ceausescu, the protesters turned to rioting and fighting, overrunning the ineffective and desperate attempt by the police to contain them. Since the fall of communism, Bucharest has enjoyed a newfound economic boom and period of modernization, as well as new attempts by the local government to restore its nearly demolished historic center.

An energetic and seductive city, which stretches north to south along the Rio de la Plata covering 78.5 square miles, Buenos Aires has been the gateway to Argentina for centuries. Portenos, as the multinational citizens of Buenos Aires term themselves, possess an elaborate and rich cultural identity, drawing on Spanish, Portuguese, Italian, German, Irish, Polish, Jewish as well as native influences; the city has often been referred to as the "Paris of South America." Its lifestyle and architecture is more distinctly European than those of any other city in the southern hemisphere. Its physical layout is a mosaic as varied as its people, its cuisine, and its music. Buenos Aires is, not surprisingly, the most visited city in South America (ahead of even Rio de Janeiro).

The city was founded as Ciudad de Nuestra Senora Santa Maria del Buen Ayre ("City of Our Lady Saint Mary of the Fair Winds") in 1536 AD by a Spanish expedition. When Argentina became independent in 1816, the cosmopolitan city became its capital. In the decades between 1880 and 1940, Buenos Aires became a haven for those seeking refuge from political, religious, ideological and artistic persecution in countries across Europe. From hungry Irish to devout Jews to Tsarist survivors, each wave of immigrants brought their traditions and talents to add to the stew, making the city the cultural rival of any world capital.

Perhaps nothing reflects the city's unique cultural blend as does the tango. A combination of several dances, the tango evolved in Buenos Aires in the late 1880s. Practiced in dance halls, parks, open plazas and ballrooms, it became the national dance, combining both "elegant reserve and an exuberant passion." Few dances have been so identified with a place as the tango is with Buenos Aires, the soul of Argentina.

Ecbatana, the ancient capital of Media, was one of the great cities of antiquity, located in present-day Iran. Founded in the late 8th century BCE, it became the political and cultural center of the Median Empire before being absorbed by the Achaemenid Persians in the 6th century BCE. Its strategic location in the Zagros Mountains made it a key administrative and military hub throughout Persian, Hellenistic, and Parthian rule.

Under Achaemenid and later Seleucid rule, Ecbatana remained an important city, serving as a summer residence for Persian kings due to its cooler climate. The city also played a role in the campaigns of Alexander the Great, who captured it in 330 BCE during his conquest of Persia.

Today, the remains of Ecbatana are located in modern-day Hamadan, Iran. While much of the ancient city lies buried, excavations have uncovered fortifications, palatial structures, and artifacts that continue to shed light on its historical significance.

Florence (in Italian, "Firenze") is one of the most interesting and beautiful cities in Europe. It lies on the River Arno in northern Italy, in the heart of the beautiful Tuscany region. Florence was founded in 59 BC by Julius Caesar as a settlement for former Roman soldiers, at the strategic location where the Via Cassia (the main route north from Rome) crosses the Arno. It was laid out in a checkerboard pattern, in the style of a military encampment. Its position allowed Florence to prosper from the trade between Rome and the north, and by 300 AD the city was made the capital of the province of Tuscia (Tuscany). For the next several hundred years the city was under attack from both Ostrogoths and Byzantines, and ownership changed hands repeatedly until 774 AD, when Charlemagne took and held the city, fending off further foreign attack.

Florence regained its wealth and prominence during the subsequent centuries, growing to become one of the wealthiest and most powerful city-states anywhere in Europe. In 1252 the Republic of Florence introduced its own currency, the gold florin. Florins were accepted across much of the Mediterranean and into Europe, and Florentine merchants and bankers rapidly spread across the known world.

During the Renaissance Florence was controlled by several extremely wealthy and ruthless families, including the Medici. When not engaged in deadly power struggles with each other the Florentine nobility were great patrons of the arts, Lorenzo de Medici alone commissioning works by Michelangelo, Botticelli, and Leonardo da Vinci, to name just three of the brilliant men he supported. By the mid-fifteenth century the Medici were made the hereditary Grand Dukes of Tuscany, ruling the province and Florence for several centuries. In 1737 Florence became part of the territories of Austria, in 1859 it was transferred to the Kingdom of Sardinia-Piedmont, and in 1861 it became part of the newly-united Kingdom of Italy.

Modern Florence is a thriving tourist center of some 500,000 citizens, a city that relishes its Roman, Medieval and Renaissance histories. It remains one of the most beautiful and evocative places in Europe, and indeed in the entire world.

Holmul was an important Maya city located in present-day Guatemala, flourishing during the Classic Period (c. 250-900 AD). Positioned along key trade routes, it played a crucial role in the interaction between major Maya polities, including Tikal and Naranjo. The city's art and architecture reflect strong influences from these neighboring powers, as well as unique local traditions.

Archaeological discoveries at Holmul have provided significant insight into Maya civilization. Notable finds include intricately carved stelae, polychrome murals, and elaborate tombs of elite rulers. A remarkable frieze uncovered in 2013 depicted powerful rulers and deities, shedding light on the political dynamics of the Late Classic Period.

Today, Holmul remains an active archaeological site, with ongoing excavations continuing to uncover its past. The site's discoveries contribute to a broader understanding of Maya history, reinforcing its significance as a cultural and historical landmark.

To his fellow Afghans, Abed Rahmani wrote, "Be united like a rain; be powerful like an ocean." The people of Kabul, largest city in Afghanistan, having weathered repeated imperial invasions to retain their distinctive culture and identity, can be said to have done that. Wedged in a valley in the Hindu Kush, Kabul occupies a strategic location on the route between south and central Asia, controlling the approaches to the Khyber Pass. The city serves as Afghanistan's cultural and educational center; although the conflicts beginning in 1978 crippled Kabul's influence, since the ascension of the Karzai administration in 2001, progress has been made in returning the capital to its historic role in the cultural and political life of the Hindu Kush.

Kabul is over 3500 years old, but rarely free. The Hindu Rigveda praised it as the ideal city, a "vision of paradise set in the mountains." Late in the Achaemenid Era, the city became a center for Zoroastrianism. Numerous kingdoms and empires held Kabul over the next dozen centuries. In 1504 the city was taken by Babur, who made it his headquarters as he carved out the Mughal Empire. Babur so loved the city he lived in for two decades that his tomb carried an inscription in Persian reading: "If there is a paradise on earth, this is it, this is it."

Free at last when the 20th Century dawned, Kabul experienced a renaissance that spanned 60 years. During the 40-year rule of the liberal Mohammed Zahir Shah, European investments helped develop a modern network of communication and transportation. The ten-year Soviet occupation ended in civil war in 1989, resulting in the repressive Taliban-controlled Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan. Not until an American-led coalition established a new democratic government did Kabul begin to reassert its historic cultural identity.

Kuala Lumpur had its start as a tin mining town when the Malay Chief ordered a new mine opened at its location in 1857. The original name, Pengkalan Lumpur, literally translated to "bundle of mud", a testament to the site's low laying position between two equally muddy rivers. Later the town's name was changed to Kuala Lumpur or, "muddy confluence" - apparently the environment still hadn't changed much for the better.

The small mining town eventually developed into a more lucrative trading post, but it was constantly plagued by disease, fires, and floods, slowing its progress some. The state's capital was moved to the city in 1880 despite this, taking advantage of the strategic rivers and mines. However, a year later a fire engulfed the town, quickly followed by a massive flood. The two natural disasters destroyed virtually every building in the city, mostly because they were made of wood and thatch - both of which either quickly burn or can easily be mildewed or swept away by raging waters. Leaders of the city mandated that all new constructions be fashioned of brick and tile. After the city rebuilt itself, Kuala Lumpur was chosen as the capital of the newly formed Federated Malay States in 1896.

The 1900's brought more problems to Kuala Lumpur - it was occupied by the Japanese during World War II, tin collapsed as a commodity, and it had to deal with a guerrilla war fought between the British rulers and communist nationals. However, in 1963 Malaysia gained its independence from Britain, and made Kuala Lumpur its new capital.

The city is now the largest in Malaysia and has one of the most iconographic modern skylines. At one point it also boasted the world's tallest skyscrapers, the Petronas Twin Towers, before they were overtaken by Taipei 101 in 2004. Today the city is an economic and cultural hub of the country, with a booming industrial and tourist sector.

According to legend, Kyiv was founded by three Slavic brothers - Kyi, Schek, and Khoryv - around the beginning of the 6th Century AD. Since then, Kyiv, one of the oldest cities in Eastern Europe, has passed through times of great prominence and periods of relative obscurity. Throughout the centuries, however, it has remained the most important Slavic cultural center, playing a pivotal role in the development of the medieval East Slavic civilization.

Located on the Dnieper trade route between Constantinople and Scandinavia, Kyiv came under the control of local Varangian (Viking) nobility and became the nucleus of the state of Rus. During the 1000s, it reached its ascendancy, a cultural hub with over 400 churches, eight markets, docks and a caravansary, and magnificent homes. With the founding of the Kyiv-Mogilyanskaya Academy in 1632, the city became the center of Ukrainian learning and scholarship. But as the capital of Kyivan Rus, the city was repeatedly sacked and occupied.

In 1667 the city became part of the Russian Empire; Kyiv remained an ecclesiastical and cultural center, but its political and economic influence was marginalized. Kyiv experienced growing "Russification" in the 1800s, as a result of Russian migration, educational policies, and industrialization. However, enthusiasts among ethnic Ukrainian nobles, military officers and merchants kept the native culture alive in Kyiv, often through clandestine activities such as book-printing, amateur theater, private soirees, folk festivals and the like.

Forcefully incorporated into the Soviet Union, the city weathered all manner of troubles: the famine of 1932-1933 devastated the lower classes, Stalin's 1937-1938 purges almost obliterated the city's intelligensia, and the 1941-1943 Nazi invasion brought death and destruction. But Kyiv survived, and in the wake of the collapse of the Soviet Union an independent Ukraine was proclaimed in 1991, with resurgent Kyiv as its capital and cultural heart.

Founded in 1914 AD as Belotsarsk by Tsarist Russia to serve as the capital of its Tuva Republic, Kyzyl lies on the confluence of two tributaries of the Yenisei River in the heart of Asia. In fact, the town claims to be built on the exact geographical center of Asia. Historically, the region was controlled by the Mongols until 1757 AD, when it was brought under Manchu rule until 1911. During the 1911 Chinese rebellion, Tsarist Russia proclaimed Tuva a protectorate, a claim China was in no position to challenge. Following the Russian Revolution, the city was occupied at times by both the White and Red armies; after a brief two years under Chinese control again, in August 1921 the local Bolsheviks established a Communist republic, with the city renamed Kyzyl (Turkic for "red") as its capital. The Soviet Union annexed Kyzyl, along with Tuva, outright in 1944.

Until the Russian Federation was formed in 1992 AD, Kyzyl was largely isolated from the world. This 50-year enforced isolation helped preserve the Turkic-Mongolian culture found nowhere else that characterized the town. Khuresh, a Tuvan form of wrestling, is extremely popular, and an annual competition is held in Kyzyl. Turkic music, notably Tuvan throat singing, is celebrated each year at the Naadym festival. Since the Soviet collapse, a concerted effort to preserve the region's rich oral tradition of epics, poems, riddles and tongue-twisters has been promoted.

Since 1992 the Tuvan Democratic Movement has sought to provide jobs and housing to the nomadic peoples of the republic, as well as promote the Tuvan language and crafts. Following a wave of attacks on Kyzyl's sizeable Russian population, which resulted in 88 deaths, many Russians relocated to other Federation cities. Kyzyl, although being promoted as a tourist venue, remains remote and difficult to reach.

Founded in the 4th century BC by the Celtic Insubres people, the city of Milan in northern Italy grew over time to become one of the greatest cultural centers of the Italian Renaissance period.

After being conquered by the Romans in approximately 222 BC, Milan later became one of the three capitals of the Roman Empire during the Tetrarchy of Emperor Diocletian. Passing through the hands of a number of kings and empires following Rome's decline, Milan's prosperity continued to climb as the city became an increasingly important bastion in northern Italy.

Of the many notable aspects of Milan's history, none have a greater renown than the city's cultural contributions to the world. As an integral part of the Italian Renaissance movement, Milan was home to many great artists, who produced some of the greatest works of the era. Perhaps the most famous of Milan's residents was the painter Leonardo Da Vinci, who spent much of his life working and studying in the city.

In the present day, Milan is still recognized as one of the world's leading cultural centers, with much of the current focus being on fashion and modern design. Milan is also one of Italy's most important commercial business centers, as much of the country's transportation infrastructure leads through the city. Numerous multinational corporations also have offices in Milan, with industries ranging from telecommunications to manufacturing.

The Principality of Monaco is the world's smallest monarchy and the second smallest country, larger only than Vatican City. While being populated by Ligurian people (Monoikos in Greek) from the 6th century AD, the city of Monaco was founded in 1228 as a colony of Genoa. In 1297 Francesco Grimaldi captured the fortress protecting the small city state, and his family has ruled the country since.

French revolutionary forces captured the principality in 1793, and it remained under French control until 1814 when it was designated a protectorate of the Kingdom of Sardinia by the Congress of Vienna. It remained under Sardinia until Sardinia was also annexed to France, then gained its independence in 1861. France, however, was (and still is) required to provide any military defenses for the small country. Not a bad deal for a country less than a mile square in area. Monaco was briefly occupied during World War II, but the attempt to set up a Fascist administration and replace the Grimaldis failed, leaving the country little changed.

Monaco's current claim to fame comes primarily from three sources - the late Princess Grace, its status as a tax haven, and its world renowned casino. For the first, Prince Rainier III married the American actress Grace Kelly in 1956, focusing the world's attention on the small country for the first time in centuries. Besides the constant attention she brought to the country, she also avidly worked to improve arts and education support in the U.S. and Monaco. For a second point of fame, or rather infamy, Monaco has never levied a personal income tax on its inhabitants, thereby attracting numerous wealthy residents from around the world. Finally, the Monte Carlo Casino is one of the greatest tourist attractions in the country. Open since 1856, the casino is visited by many of the world's wealthiest gamblers, but is forbidden to the country's own citizens. The casino serves as a landmark in the annual Monaco Grand Prix and as a location for three James Bond films. A class of computational algorithms and methods for sampling random data also take their name from the casino.

Nestled in the mountains of northern Spain, Oviedo is the capital of the autonomous community of Asturias. Founded in the 8th century AD, it became the political and religious heart of the Kingdom of Asturias, playing a crucial role in the Christian Reconquista against the Moors. The city was home to numerous pre-Romanesque churches, some of which remain standing as UNESCO World Heritage Sites.

During the Middle Ages, Oviedo thrived as a center of learning and pilgrimage, with the Cathedral of San Salvador drawing thousands of devout travelers. The city suffered significant damage during the Spanish Civil War but was later rebuilt, preserving much of its historical charm.

Today, Oviedo is known for its rich cultural heritage, lively student population, and vibrant arts scene. It remains a major tourist destination, celebrated for its well-preserved medieval architecture, traditional Asturian cider, and scenic mountain surroundings.

Widely recognized for its cultural contributions to Europe over the past millennium, the city of Prague, capital of the Czech Republic, grew from a minor settlement of the mid-8th century to a major metropolitan area of more than one million people as it stands today.

During the 14th century, Prague flourished as the seat of power for the Holy Roman Emperor Charles IV. Many of the city's most notable landmarks were constructed during his reign, including the famous St. Vitus Cathedral built in the Gothic architectural style. Prague also expanded as an economic center during this period, receiving traders and financiers from across Europe as the city's population greatly increased.

Home to a number of renowned museums, theaters, and other cultural attractions, Prague is an extremely popular tourist destination in the present day. By current estimates, more than three million visitors come to Prague each year to enjoy the sights of the historic city.

Records show that while the area around Seoul has been settled from the Paleolithic Age, the city wasn't officially founded until 18 BC when the kingdom of Baekje built its capital city Wiryeseong at the site. In time, Baekje developed from a small minor state into one of the major Three Kingdoms of Korea, a group of countries which dominated the peninsula for most of the first millennium. Over time, Seoul grew into a formidable city and held great political significance.

Eventually the Three Kingdoms were consolidated under one rule, and in 1394 AD the capital of this new country was moved to Seoul. Large walls were built around the city, as much to keep out thieves as well as tigers and other unwanted large, scary animals. Each day the gates were opened at dawn and closed at dusk, keeping the city isolated and protected. Eventually, Seoul opened its gates to the influx of westerners arriving in the east during the late 1800s, and the city began to modernize. In fact, Seoul was the first eastern city to have electricity, running water, and the telephone.

Things continued well for Seoul until World War I when the Japanese occupied Korea in 1910; the country remained under Japanese rule until 1945. After Korea's liberation, the Republic of Korea was founded (modern day South Korea), and Seoul was named as its capital. During the Korean War, starting in 1950, Seoul changed hands between North and South Korea many times, it being less than 100 miles from the border. The city endured heavy damage during this time, with over two hundred thousand buildings in ruins.

After the war, the city was the focus of a huge reconstruction effort and an attempt to improve the standard of living for the population, which had swelled with millions of refugees. The city continued its population and economic boom into the 21st century, becoming the third largest metropolitan area in the world and housing a full quarter of South Korea's population. Seoul has been voted the 2010 Design Capital of the World, boasts one of the world's most technologically advanced infrastructures, and is home to some of the world's largest electronic companies.

Founded in the late 10th century, Sigtuna is Sweden's oldest preserved town, established during the reign of King Erik the Victorious. Located along Lake Mälaren, it quickly became a political and religious center, serving as an early hub for Christianization in Scandinavia. The town was home to Sweden's first minted coins, reflecting its role as an emerging economic power.

During the medieval period, Sigtuna flourished as a trading center, connecting Sweden with the rest of Europe. Numerous churches and monastic institutions were built, cementing its status as a religious stronghold. However, in the 13th century, its prominence declined as Stockholm rose to prominence.

Today, Sigtuna is a charming historical town, preserving its medieval heritage through well-preserved ruins, runestones, and narrow streets. It remains a key cultural site in Sweden, attracting visitors interested in its Viking and medieval history.

Vienna is the capital and largest city in the Republic of Austria. Founded sometime around 500 BC, Vienna was originally a Celtic settlement. In 15 BC it became a Roman frontier town, fortified to guard the empire against raids from the Germanic tribes to the north. The Romans remained in the city until the 5th century AD, when they mysteriously abandoned the city, perhaps vacating because of a catastrophic fire occurring at that time.

The city became the home of the Babenberg Dynasty during the early Middle Ages, and in 1440 it also came to be the resident city of the Habsburg Dynasties. During the next few centuries it grew into a center for the arts, science, and fine cuisine, and eventually became the capital of the Holy Roman Empire. The city remained a formidable fortress during its cultural growth, and stopped the Ottoman armies twice at the Siege of Vienna in 1529 and in the Battle of Vienna in 1683.

After the collapse of the Holy Roman Empire, Vienna continued its collection of capital titles when it became the capital of the Austrian Empire in 1804. The city continued to grow dramatically and many suburbs and surrounding towns were incorporated into its boundaries.

The city played little part in World War I, but did become the capital of the First Austrian Republic after the collapse of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. It was a bastion of socialism in Austria (earning it the nickname "Red Vienna") until Adolf Hitler occupied the city in 1938. For the first time in centuries, Vienna lost its capital status to Berlin, but quickly regained it after the Second World War when it was once again named the capital of Austria. During this period Vienna became a hotbed for international espionage between the West and the Soviets.

In the 1970s the Austrian Chancellor created a new area in the city to host its growing international institutions, aptly named the Vienna International Center. Vienna now hosts an office of the United Nations, the International Atomic Energy Agency, the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (much to the dismay of the spies), and many other international agencies. While Vienna is famous for its elaborate balls, museums, and operatic tradition, one of the most well known "exports" of the city is the culinary dish Wiener Schnitzel, a breaded and fried cutlet of veal. The canned product "Vienna Sausages", however, is a purely North American invention.

Wanggeom, also known as Wanggom-seong, was the capital of the ancient Korean kingdom of Gojoseon, traditionally founded sometime in the late 2nd millennium BC. It served as the political and cultural center of Korea's earliest known state, attributed to the legendary King Dangun. The city thrived as a hub of early civilization in Northeast Asia, developing trade networks with neighboring states in China and Manchuria.

During the 2nd century BC, Wanggeom faced growing pressure from the expanding Han Dynasty of China. In 108 BC, after a prolonged struggle, the Han forces captured the city, leading to the establishment of the Four Commanderies of Han, which significantly influenced Korean history. Despite this, Gojoseon's legacy persisted in later Korean kingdoms, including Goguryeo.

Today, the precise location of Wanggeom remains debated, with theories suggesting sites in modern Pyongyang or the Liaoning region of China. Regardless, its historical significance endures in Korean cultural identity and national history.

Located along the banks of the Vistula River, the area covered by present day Warsaw has been inhabited for roughly 14,000 years. The first fortified settlement at the site was the town of Bródno, built in the 9th century AD, followed by the town of Jazdów in the 12th century. Both of these towns were raided and razed, allowing Prince Boleslaw II of Masovia to establish a small fishing village by the name of Warszowa on the site in 1300. The early years of the city were mostly quiet and calm, the majority of the population working as small craftsman or dealing in local trade.

However the 16th and 17th centuries brought drastic changes to the little city. Civil unrest began to develop in Warsaw, as the economic discrepancies between the tradesman and nobility grew to even greater heights, and the occasional peasant revolt broke out in the city. On a happier note, Warsaw became the capital of the Polish Commonwealth in 1596 with the crowning of the new King Sigismund III Vasa. The city grew to over 14,000 people and expanded well past its old, fortified walls. A Swedish invasion ravaged the city in 1655, but this only left more room for the wealthy and nobility to rebuild, establishing new private districts in the wake of the old; many of these magnificent Baroque residences survived until World War II.

In 1700 the city once again took a turn for the worse when the Great Northern War broke out. Two years into the war the city was captured by Swedish forces and suffered heavily under their occupation. In 1705 Saxon-Russian troops laid siege to the city for two years, up through the end of the war. Much of Warsaw's economy was destroyed as it was obliged to pay heavy contributions to the war effort, and the city fell under the shadow of the Russians.

Much of Warsaw began to change after this, as it developed into a capitalistic and enlightened city. Museums, libraries, and factories were built, and the middle class of merchants, industrialists, and financers greatly expanded; by 1750 Warsaw had over 115,000 people living within its borders. These large changes in the makeup of the population also brought about new unrest. In 1794 the Warsaw Uprising broke out, an insurrection supported by the local army to overthrow the Russian control of the city. Russian soldiers reached the capital a few months later and defeated the Polish forces in a matter of hours. The exact death toll of the Uprising is unknown, but it is estimated that the Russian troops slaughtered at least 20,000 civilians that day.

Warsaw remained under Russian control for the next 120 years, its citizens revolting two more times in the November and January Uprisings. After World War I, the independent nation of Poland was created and Warsaw was named as its capital. Russian forces however returned for the city in 1920 and the massive Battle of Warsaw was fought along the eastern outskirts of the city. The Polish troops managed to defeat the Red Army and are credited not only with saving the country from the Soviets, but also with saving all of Central Europe from the brunt of Communism (for the time being).

Unfortunately, during World War II, the city fell to the Nazis and its Jewish inhabitants - almost 30% of the population - were herded out of the city and exterminated. Faced with various uprisings from the Polish people and the encroaching Red Army, the Nazis sought to completely demolish Warsaw, razing 85% of the buildings to the ground (including the historic old mansions and the royal palace). The ruins of the city were liberated on January 17, 1945. It is here that the city earned its nickname "The Phoenix City" as a grand effort was made to rebuild the city. Many of the original streets and buildings were successfully restored and in 1980 the reclaimed historic center was inscribed onto UNESCO's World Heritage list. In 2004 Poland joined the European Union, and Warsaw has begun to see its biggest economic boom of its history.

Yamatai was an ancient kingdom in Japan, believed to have flourished during the late Yayoi period (c. 1st-3rd centuries AD). Ruled by the enigmatic Queen Himiko, Yamatai is described in Chinese historical records as a highly organized society with advanced political and religious structures. Himiko was recognized for uniting warring clans and maintaining peace through spiritual leadership, earning recognition from the Chinese Wei dynasty.

The exact location of Yamatai remains a topic of debate among historians, with theories placing it either in northern Kyushu or the Kinki region. Archaeological evidence, such as artifacts linked to early state formation, has fueled ongoing research into its whereabouts. Despite the mystery, Yamatai is seen as a precursor to Japan's classical-era Yamato state.

Today, the legend of Queen Himiko and the lost kingdom of Yamatai continues to capture public imagination. Historical and archaeological studies into its origins contribute to a broader understanding of Japan's early political and social development.

Standing among the oldest cities in the world, Yerevan, the present-day capital of Armenia, traces its founding to the construction of the Erebuni fortress in 782 BC by King Argishti I of Urartu. Since that time, Yerevan has fallen under the rule of a number of powerful empires, having been conquered during the Arab invasions of the 7th century AD. It was during this period that Yerevan became an important stopover along the caravan routes connecting Europe to Asia. In the present-day, Yerevan is known for the many industries based in the city, which account for more than 50% of Armenia's total industrial output. Industries producing heavy machinery, chemicals, raw materials, and textiles, have all contributed to the city's growing economy. Yerevan also plays an important role in Armenia's reputation for producing high quality alcohol, as a number of manufacturers are based within the city.

Located near the southeastern border of modern-day Kazakhstan, Almaty has hosted human settlements from as early as 1000 BC. Its early history was one of farms and tribal herdsman, and it wasn't until the Middle Ages that Almaty began to prosper and flourish as a city, when it became an integral part of the Silk Road trade route. For three centuries Almaty thrived as a center for agriculture and crafts, but in the 13th century much of the city was destroyed by Mongol raids. By the 15th century, Almaty and the surrounding region found itself in a state of decline.

It wasn't until 1854 that Almaty began to recover and build anew into the modern city it is today. Imperial Russia constructed Fort Zailiyskoye on the ancient site, later renaming it Fort Verniy. A year later the soldiers started accepting peasants and tradesmen to the area and formed the town of Verniy, which housed the administrative center of the newly created Semirechye province of Turkistan. For a brief thirty years this version of Almaty prospered again, only to be destroyed in less than twelve minutes by a catastrophic earthquake in 1887.

In the early 20th century, the town's name was changed to Alma-Ata. With the construction of the Turkestan-Siberia Railroad the city regained some of its former importance as a trade depot. The capital of Kazakhstan was moved to Alma-Ata in 1936, with the idea of remaking the city into a kind of cultural Mecca. In 1993 Alma-Ata's name was changed yet again to Almaty (referencing the area's ample apple orchards).

In 1997 the government moved the country's capital to Astana - a city with far fewer threats of natural disasters. Despite this setback to its political importance and the constant threat of destruction from catastrophic mudflows, Almaty once again prospers as a cultural, financial, and industrial center.

Argos, one of the oldest continuously inhabited cities in Greece, has a history stretching back over 7,000 years. Situated in the northeastern Peloponnesus, it played a central role in the development of Greek culture, particularly during the Mycenaean and Classical periods. In antiquity, Argos was known for its contributions to art, theater, and politics, as well as its powerful military traditions.

During the Mycenaean era (1600-1100 BC), Argos was a major center of power, closely associated with legendary figures such as Perseus and Agamemnon. It remained influential into the Archaic and Classical periods, pioneering advances in sculpture and city planning. The city was a leader in the development of Greek hoplite warfare and played a key role in the Persian and Peloponnesian Wars.

Despite its decline in later centuries due to shifting political and military landscapes, Argos retained its cultural significance. Today, its rich archaeological heritage - including the ruins of ancient temples, theaters, and the Heraion of Argos - makes it an important site for historians and visitors alike.

One of the earliest and most significant cities of Mesopotamia, Assur served as the religious and political heart of the Assyrian Empire. Founded on the banks of the Tigris River around the 25th century BC, the city initially thrived as a hub of trade before rising to prominence as the center of one of history's most formidable military powers.

During the height of the Neo-Assyrian Empire (9th-7th centuries BC), Assur was revered as a sacred city dedicated to the god Ashur, from whom both the empire and city derived their names. The Assyrians, known for their advanced military strategies and vast conquests, used Assur as a base for expansion across the Near East. However, the city suffered devastating destruction in 614 BC when it was sacked by the Medes and Babylonians, marking the beginning of Assyria's decline.

Although briefly resettled in later centuries, Assur never regained its former power. Today, its ruins lie in present-day Iraq, recognized as a UNESCO World Heritage Site, though ongoing conflicts have threatened its preservation.

Aztlan is the legendary ancestral home of the Aztec people, believed to have been located somewhere in northern Mexico or the southwestern United States. According to Aztec mythology, the Mexica people migrated south from Aztlan in the 12th century, guided by their god Huitzilopochtli, until they founded Tenochtitlan in 1325 AD. Though its precise location remains unknown, Aztlan holds a significant place in the cultural and national identity of Mexico.

While Aztlan itself was never an established political entity, its symbolic importance persisted throughout Aztec history. The concept of Aztlan was later revived in the 20th century by the Chicano movement as a representation of indigenous heritage and cultural pride.

Today, Aztlan remains an enigmatic and controversial topic among historians and archaeologists, but its legacy endures in the myths and cultural identity of the Mexican people.

Located in present-day Thailand, Ban Chiang is one of Southeast Asia's most significant prehistoric archaeological sites. It was inhabited as early as 1500 BC and became a center of early metalworking, with evidence of advanced bronze production dating back thousands of years. The settlement provides crucial insights into the development of early agrarian societies in the region.

Excavations at Ban Chiang in the 20th century uncovered a wealth of artifacts, including elaborately painted pottery, bronze tools, and burial sites that suggest a complex and sophisticated culture. The discovery revolutionized scholars' understanding of early civilization in Southeast Asia.

Today, Ban Chiang is a UNESCO World Heritage Site, attracting archaeologists and tourists alike. The Ban Chiang National Museum showcases many of the artifacts discovered at the site, ensuring that the legacy of this ancient civilization endures.

The present capital of Serbia, Belgrade lies at the juncture of two of Europe's most important waterways, the Danube and Sava rivers, and has served as a major crossroad between Europe and Asia for centuries. Belgrade is one of the oldest cities in Europe, with settlements dating as far back as 6,000 BC, and may have been the home of the largest known prehistoric European culture, the Vincas. The first recorded fort and permanent settlement on this location was built by the Celts in the 3rd century BC, who named it Singidun, or Singidunum, "White Fortress".

Singidunum was ravaged and occupied by a large succession of peoples over the next couple of hundred years, including the Romans, Huns, Sarmatians, Ostrogoths, and Avars, before falling under Byzantium rule in the 9th century AD. This is when the city was given its Slavic name, Beligrad, which means "White Fortress." In the following centuries the city hosted the armies of both the First and Second Crusade and remained a contested battleground between Bulgaria, Hungary, and Byzantium.

In 1456, the Ottomans launched the famous Siege of Belgrade in an attempt to subjugate Hungary - the fall of the fortress at Belgrade would have opened a clear path for Sultan Mehmed II to take the heart of Central Europe. However, an army led by Hungarian John Hunyadi destroyed the Ottoman's forces and is credited not only with saving the city but also with preserving Christianity in Europe. To this day, Catholic churches still ring the church bells at noon in commemoration of the victory. Unfortunately, plague killed many of the victorious soldiers - including Hunyadi - in the weeks following their triumph. In 1521, nearly 70 years later, Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent finally captured the city, and it was made the seat of the Ottomans' Sanjak district and quickly became the second largest city in the Empire, eclipsed only by Constantinople.

The Second Serbian Uprising of 1815 (following a brief failed attempt in 1807) granted the Serbian region semi-independence, with full independence not achieved until 1878; the capital of this new kingdom was moved to Belgrade and the city once again prospered and grew rapidly. The city's growth was halted however with the advent of World War I in 1914, when Belgrade was decimated from repeated attacks. After the war, Belgrade became the capital of newly-formed Yugoslavia and experienced a period of unforeseen growth and modernization.

Despite the Serbian government's attempt to stay out of World War II, Belgrade was heavily bombed and its people massacred by the Luftwaffe in 1941, and was quickly occupied by the Germans. In 1944, the Allies bombed the city and finally liberated it a few months later. At war's end Serbia was under the Soviet Union's control, and a year later the People's Republic of Yugoslavia was created, with Belgrade again housing the government's seat. Communist Belgrade rapidly developed into a major industrial center.

In 1996, massive demonstrations were held in Belgrade against the Communist-led government, and in 1997 the first mayor of Belgrade was elected who did not belong to the Communist or Socialist party. Unrest continued however, with major bombings during the Kosovo War of 1999 causing substantial damage and leading to hundreds of thousands of protesters taking to the streets. However, in spite of these military and economic troubles of the 1990s, Belgrade has been growing strong ever since as a center for history, culture, and tourism.

Brandenburg, a medieval fortress city, played a crucial role in the history of what is now northern Germany. First established as a Slavic stronghold in the early Middle Ages, it was later conquered by Germanic forces during the eastward expansion of the Holy Roman Empire. By the 10th century, Brandenburg had become a key defensive and administrative center, overseeing trade and military operations in the region.

During the 12th and 13th centuries, Brandenburg flourished under German rule, developing into a prominent hub for commerce and craftsmanship. Its fortified walls, stone towers, and central keep made it a formidable stronghold against external threats, including incursions from neighboring Slavic tribes and rival feudal lords. The Teutonic Order and other Christian military groups played a role in shaping its strategic importance during the Northern Crusades.

However, as medieval power structures shifted and trade routes evolved, Brandenburg gradually lost its prominence. By the 16th century, much of its military significance had waned, and it transitioned into a more provincial center. Today, the ruins of Brandenburg stand as a testament to its storied past, attracting historians and tourists interested in its medieval legacy.

Budapest is the capital of Hungary. Known historically as "the Queen of the Danube," Budapest is the political and cultural center of the country and an important economic and industrial hub in Central Europe. While inhabited from the Neolithic Period (c.9500 BC), the first recorded settlement in the region of modern-day Budapest was the Celtic city of Ak-Ink, later occupied by the Romans and renamed to Aquincum in the 2nd century AD. Its strategic position along the Danube River made Aquincum a desirable holding for both Rome and its enemies alike.

At the end of the 9th century AD, a group of Hungarians led by Árpád (the second Grand Prince of the Magyars) settled in the area around Aquincum and officially founded the Kingdom of Hungary a hundred years later. While the city grew and prospered, little was done to reinforce or extend the early Roman fortifications, and a Tatar invasion in the 13th century showed the Hungarians that it can be very difficult indeed to hold a city on the open plains. After the defeat, King Béla IV of Hungary constructed reinforced stone walls around the city and even moved his own palace to the protected, hilled town of Buda, located on the outskirts of Aquincum. In 1361 Aquincum/Buda became the capital of Hungary.

The Italian Renaissance greatly influenced the cultural role of Buda, when King Matthias Corvinus built his library there in the 15th century, housing one of Europe's greatest collections of historical, philosophical, and scientific works. Only the Vatican's library rivaled it for holdings and size. This explosive period of cultural growth slammed to a halt when the Turks pillaged the city in 1526, besieged and captured it in 1541, and occupied it for the next 140 years. In 1686 the city was successfully retaken by Charles V and incorporated into the Habsburg Empire. Unfortunately, the city was largely destroyed during the subsequent battle.

The nineteenth century was dominated by the Hungarians' struggle for independence from the Habsburgs until the Reconciliation of 1867, which created the new dual monarchy of Austria-Hungary and placed Buda as the capital for both these monarchies. In 1873 Buda, Pest, and Óbuda (ancient Buda) were officially merged into the modern city of Budapest, starting a golden age of economic and cultural growth.

Budapest's happy times ended with World War I and the collapse of the Austria-Hungarian Empire. During World War II the city sustained heavy damage from British and American air raids and was besieged during the Battle of Budapest in 1945. Major damage was afflicted upon the city from the attacking Soviet troops, and tens of thousands of civilians were killed. The communist government of the country did little to rebuild the city after the war's end, and systematically gutted and destroyed many of the surviving historic buildings in the city.

In 1956 a peaceful student demonstration in Budapest led to the start of the Hungarian Revolution when State Security Police fired upon the crowd. The government was overthrown, but the USSR sent a regiment of tanks to Budapest and crushed the revolt and restored the Communist Party to power. The last Soviet troops left Budapest in 1991 as Hungary began the transition to a free society. For the rest of the century, work was done to repair much of the wartime damage and to preserve and rebuild the remaining historic locations. Despite these beginnings of growth and construction, the city has begun recently experiencing a sharp decrease in population as its inhabitants flee to the neighboring Pest county.

In the late 19th century, Msiri, the ambitious son of an East African trader, established the town of Bunkeya in present-day Katanga Province, Democratic Republic of Congo. From this base, he forged the Bayeke Kingdom, controlling a vast territory in the east Congo Basin. Bunkeya became a strategic center of commerce, trading ivory, copper, iron ore, salt, and slaves to Arab-Swahili merchants on the coast. In exchange, Msiri acquired firearms and ammunition, cementing his power and expanding his influence.

By the 1880s, Bunkeya had drawn the attention of European powers. The British explored potential alliances with Msiri, prompting King Leopold II of Belgium to act swiftly to secure the region for his Congo Free State. Leopold dispatched three expeditions to Bunkeya; the first two failed to secure Msiri's submission.

In 1891, a third expedition, led from Zanzibar, forced Bayeke forces to retreat. Msiri was killed during a confrontation shortly thereafter, and Bunkeya was absorbed into the Congo Free State. Its incorporation marked the end of one of the last major indigenous Central African kingdoms to resist European colonial control.

The largest city and capital of Ireland, Dublin is commonly known to the Irish as Baile Átha Cliath, or "town of the hurdled ford"; this is a bit more romantic than its original Irish name of Dubh Linn, meaning "black pool". While the Greek astronomer Ptolemy provided some evidence suggesting that the Dublin area was settled as early as 140 AD, it wasn't until the Norse built a town at the foot of the river Liffey that the city received its more official founding date of 841. The Norse continued to rule the area despite a growing Celtic influence.

Dublin became a center for military and judicial power as the country flipped between control from the Norman lords and the King of England. English control was weakened for a time by the onslaught of the bubonic plague in 1348, but conquest of the island was begun anew under the banner of the Tudors and Dublin was again firmly under British rule by 1603. The city expanded rapidly under the British and for a short time was the second largest city in the Empire. At this time the small harbor and river tributary giving the city its name was buried and built over, and for the most part was forgotten by the city's inhabitants.

In 1759 a small brewery was founded at St. James Gate, Dublin, which would form the economic backbone of the city for centuries to come. Arthur Guinness signed a 9,000-year lease for the brewery with an annual rent of 45 pounds for the four-acre complex, using the money bequeathed to him in his godfather's will. His intelligence and business sense were questioned at the time, but the Guinness brewery soon became the largest employer in the city and substantially bolstered the growing city's economy.

After 1800 the city entered a period of decline when the seat of government was moved to Westminster. Dublin, and the rest of Ireland for that matter, had no natural source of coal and played no major part in the Industrial Revolution gripping Europe in the 19th century, and this greatly contributed to its steady decline.

Dublin's fortunes changed with the Easter Rising of 1916 when Irish Republicans hoped to end British rule of the country and gain their independence. While the city sustained heavy damage from the ensuing battles, when the Irish Free State was finally recognized by the British in 1920 it started to rebuild the city center and moved the seat of government back to Dublin. Although painfully slow at times, the rebuilding of the city has gradually made Dublin the historical and contemporary cultural nexus of Ireland. More recently, the large-scale influx of euros into the city has helped it become a leading center for the sciences, education, and industry.

Situated upon a towering crag of rock in Scotland, Edinburgh and the surrounding areas have been settled from as early as 3300 BC. The city is most likely Celtic in origin, contradicting a popular folk myth stating that it was named for a King Edwin of Northumbria. The first recorded mentions of the city date back to the late 6th century AD in the heroic poems of the Gododdin, a sect of Brittonic people. The massive outcropping of volcanic rock protected the early city from most invaders, and it wasn't until 950 AD that the last vestiges of the Gododdin were overtaken and the city fell to the Scots. The city would remain under Scottish jurisdiction from this time on.

In 1492, King James IV moved the royal court to Edinburgh and made it the official capital of Scotland. Edinburgh flourished economically and culturally from this time and throughout the Renaissance. In 1639 religious disputes between a sect of Presbyterians and the Anglican Church and a later occupation of the city by Oliver Cromwell led to fundamental changes for both Edinburgh and Scotland. In 1707 the Act of Union was passed, combining Scotland and England into the larger Kingdom of Great Britain and dissolving the Scottish Parliament in the process. The people of Edinburgh rioted at the decision.

Following the controversial joining of the two states, the people of Edinburgh worked to preserve their national identity and culture, their efforts blossoming into the period known as the Scottish Enlightenment later in the century. Easily the most influential and successful time in the city, Edinburgh became a beacon for the multitude of famous Scots gracing Europe, great men and women such as Walter Scott, Robert Burns, and Adam Smith. Edinburgh also earned its nickname the "Athens of the North" during the Enlightenment.

Edinburgh began to fall behind during the Industrial Revolution; while it did begin to modernize, it was soon eclipsed by the faster growing Scottish city of Glasgow. It wasn't until much later, in 1992 when Edinburgh hosted the European Union Treaty Summit, that the city once again moved to the forefront of importance in the country. In 1999 the Scottish Parliament was finally reinstated, and in more recent years there are signs that the Scots are considering giving full sovereignty to the Parliament as well. Regardless of whether Scotland will achieve independence in the coming years or not, the recreation of the governing body in Edinburgh has revitalized the city and given power and importance to the capital for the first time in nearly 300 years.

Located on the banks of the Red River in Vietnam, the area surrounding Hanoi has been inhabited from at least the third millennium BC. One of the first recorded permanent structures at the site was the Co Loa citadel, built sometime around 200 BC. However, it is not until 1010 AD that the official founding of Hanoi is recorded - the then ruler of the land, Lý Thái To, moved the capital to the site and renamed it Thang Long, or "ascending dragon". Thang Long remained the capital of Vietnam until 1397.

The city continued to grow quietly for the next few centuries, even while briefly occupied by the Chinese in the early 1400's. In 1831 Emperor Minh Mang renamed the city, giving it the more literal name of "Between Rivers". Shortly thereafter, the French occupied the city and surrounding area in 1873, later making Hanoi the capital of their new colony - French Indochina - in 1887.

After World War II the city was the scene of deadly fighting as control of the country was contested between the independent nationalists and the French government. North Vietnam finally won its independence in 1954 and made Hanoi the capital of the country. The city remained the capital once North and South Vietnam were reunited in 1976.

Since then, Hanoi has boomed into a vibrant metropolitan area, exponentially increasing in size with every passing generation. The city is now the most developed and modern in Vietnam, boasting the latest advancements in infrastructure and agriculture technologies.

Founded in the 19th century by King Mzilikazi, Kwa-Bulawayo was final capital of the Ndebele Kingdom, located in present-day Zimbabwe. Its name, meaning "the one to be killed," reflects the turbulent power struggles that shaped its early history. Serving as the political and military center of the Ndebele people, it became a stronghold against external threats, including British and Boer incursions.

Under Mzilikazi and his successor, Lobengula, Kwa-Bulawayo flourished as a hub of trade and governance. However, tensions with British colonial forces escalated in the late 19th century, culminating in the Anglo-Ndebele War of 1893. The British South Africa Company forces, armed with superior weaponry, overran the city, forcing the Ndebele to flee. Following the war, Kwa-Bulawayo was burned and abandoned, and a new colonial settlement was established nearby.

Today, modern Bulawayo stands as Zimbabwe's second-largest city and a major cultural and industrial center. While the original Kwa-Bulawayo no longer exists, its legacy endures in the Ndebele people's history and heritage, with sites such as the nearby Matobo Hills preserving the memory of their once-mighty kingdom.

Nestled in the valley of the Fen River in northern China, Longcheng - known in ancient times as Jinyang and now identified with modern-day Taiyuan - has served as a military and political stronghold for over two thousand years. Founded during the Spring and Autumn period, the city grew into a strategic hub due to its location along key mountain passes and its proximity to the northern frontier.

Longcheng reached prominence under the Northern Wei and Tang dynasties, when it was heavily fortified and served as a bulwark against nomadic incursions from the steppe. During the An Lushan Rebellion in the 8th century, it became a major military center, and its garrisons played decisive roles in the civil wars that followed. In later centuries, under the Ming and Qing dynasties, the city flourished as a center for coal mining and ironworking, supporting the empire's growing need for metal and energy.

Throughout the 20th century, Longcheng once again found itself on the front lines - first during the Second Sino-Japanese War, then as a contested site during the Chinese Civil War. Its industrial strength and location made it a key prize for rival factions vying for control over northern China.

Today, Longcheng remains an influential provincial capital, balancing its ancient legacy with rapid modernization. Its enduring strategic and industrial significance makes it a powerful ally - or rival - in any diplomatic struggle.

The Luba people emerged around the 5th century AD in the Upemba Depression, a resource-rich area of central Africa in modern-day Democratic Republic of Congo. From their early settlements, they cultivated a strong culture centered on fishing, agriculture, and metalworking. By the 16th century, the Luba Kingdom had consolidated under skilled rulers, extending its authority over copper mines, palm oil groves, and fertile lands.

From the 1580s, successive Luba chieftains expanded their realm rapidly, subduing neighboring peoples and integrating them into a sophisticated system of governance. The Luba became renowned for their artisanship, particularly in woodcarving and metalwork, and for their oral traditions, which preserved the deeds of rulers and the laws of the land. Trade networks brought goods from the Congo River Basin to distant markets.

The arrival of European colonial powers in the late 19th century spelled disaster for the kingdom. Pressured by encroaching Belgian forces, the Luba were formally incorporated into the Congo Free State in 1885. A major rebellion in 1895 sought to restore independence, but Belgian forces crushed the uprising, devastating the Luba population and marking the end of their sovereignty.

Situated on a low plateau in northwestern Angola, M'banza-Kongo was home to the Manikongo, absolute ruler of the Kingdom of Kongo, founded c. 1390 AD. At its peak, the Bantu warriors of M'banza-Kongo controlled a territory that reached from Africa's mid-Atlantic coast to the Kwango River, and from Point Noire in the north to the Loje River in the south. The city supported itself through taxes, forced labor, and royal levies; at times, to finance his military, the Manikongo traded slaves, copper and ivory with the Europeans on the coast. It was also supported by exhorting tribute from neighboring cities and kingdoms, making M'banza-Kongo one of the wealthiest African cities in the 1500s.

In 1568 AD, the king was compelled to allow the Portuguese to establish a colony in the Luanda province. From this base the Portuguese would gradually gain control over most of the territory surrounding M'banza-Kongo, leading to increased tension. At the Battle of Ambuila in 1665, a force of Portuguese musketeers and light cannon decisively defeated the Manikongo's army; casualties among the native warriors were in excess of 5000, including the king, effectively ending M'banza-Kongo's military supremacy in the region. The battle is generally regarded as the decisive turning point in the city's history, for it was sacked several times during the civil wars that followed the king's death, and it was largely abandoned by 1678.

M'banza-Kongo was re-occupied by the Portuguese-supported native Christian prophet Beatriz Kimpa Vita and her followers in 1705 AD and restored as Kongo's capital in 1709. Although now effectively a vassal of Portugal, the kingdom continued to exist for another 150 years, until divided between Portugal, Belgium and France at the Conference of Berlin in 1884. M'banza-Kongo never returned to its former glory, even after Congolese independence was granted in 1960.

Located in the Iberian Peninsula, Okilis was an ancient settlement that played an important regional role in early Spanish history. Thought to have been inhabited by the Iberians before the Roman conquest, it became an important regional center during the Roman period. Its strategic position along trade routes allowed it to flourish as a hub for commerce and administration.

During the Roman era, Okilis saw significant development, including the construction of roads, public buildings, and fortifications. The city became integrated into the vast Roman network, contributing to the spread of Roman culture and governance throughout the region.

Though the city's prominence declined with the fall of the Western Roman Empire, remnants of its past remain visible today. Archaeological excavations continue to uncover artifacts and structures that shed light on Okilis' rich history, ensuring its legacy is preserved for future generations.

Palatium, modern Palatine Hill in Rome, was one of the most significant sites of the Roman Empire. Traditionally believed to be the location of Romulus' founding of Rome in 753 BC, the hill became home to emperors, aristocrats, and religious institutions throughout antiquity. The word "palace" itself derives from "Palatium," reflecting its historical importance as a seat of power.

During the height of the Roman Empire, the Palatine Hill was adorned with grand palaces, including the Domus Augustana and Domus Flavia, commissioned by emperor Domitian. These structures showcased Roman architectural advancements, luxurious living quarters, and extensive gardens.

Today, the ruins of Palatium remain one of Rome's most visited archaeological sites. Tourists and historians alike explore its remnants, offering insight into the opulence of ancient Roman civilization and its enduring legacy in Western culture.

Sidon is an ancient city located on the coast of Lebanon. Originally a fishing and trade center, in modern times Sidon serves as the Mediterranean terminus for the Trans-Arabian Pipeline from Saudia Arabia.

Sidon was founded by Phoenicia in the 3rd millennium BC.
  Sidon became wealthy and prosperous in the 2nd millennium BC, famous for the quality of its glass and its purple dyes. In approximately 2700 BC, Sidon colonists founded the city of Tyre some 25 miles down the coast, and for many years the two cities competed for the seat of Phoenician wealth and power.

As Phoenicia's power waned, Sidon's wealth and strategic location made it a tempting target for conquest. During its history Sidon has been ruled by Assyria, Babylon, Persia, Alexander of Macedonia, the Seleucids, the Ptolemaic dynasty of Egypt, the Romans, the Ottomans, the French, and finally, Lebanon. During the Crusades the city changed hands several times, being destroyed and rebuilt in the process. The area is littered with the remains of fortifications from throughout history. Today, Sidon is home to Sunni and Shiite Muslims as well as Christian Greek Catholics and Maronites.

The city is mentioned numerous times in the Bible. Perhaps its most famous citizen is the wicked Queen Jezebel, wife of King Ahab of Northern Israel and great aunt of Queen Dido of Carthage. According to the Bible, Jezebel was an evil and corrupt ruler, and she encouraged the worship of foreign (Phoenician) gods in Israel. For these crimes she was killed by her own eunuchs and thrown into the street to be eaten by dogs.

There are two great lessons from this story for all rulers: first, don't mess with the people's religion, and second, never trust the royal eunuchs.

Capital and largest city of Bulgaria, Sofia lies in the center of the Balkan Peninsula. The Serdi, a Thracian tribe, first settled the area c. 700 BC; around 29 BC the Serdi settlement was conquered by the Romans. The town, lying on an important trade route through the Balkans, flourished during the emperor Trajan's reign (98-117 AD), and reached its height of prosperity and peace during the reign of the Byzantine emperor Constantine. Thereafter, Sofia's history is primarily one of strife, war and conquest.

The city was largely destroyed by the invasion of the Huns in 447 AD. Rebuilt by the Emperor Justinian I, in 809 the city was seized by the Bulgarian khan Krum. The Bulgars were supplanted by the Ottoman Turks in 1382. Following the failed crusade of Wladyslaw III of Poland to liberate Bulgaria, the city's Christian elite was annihilated and it became the capital of the Ottoman province of Rumelia for the next four centuries.

Sofia was taken by Russian troops during the Russo-Turkish War of 1878 and was made the capital of the "Autonomous Principality of Bulgaria," which evolved into the independent Kingdom of Bulgaria in 1908. Following its independence, Bulgaria became embroiled in two Balkan wars. After sitting out the first year of World War I, Bulgaria joined the Entente and attacked Serbia, Greece and Romania, all allies of the Western Powers.

In the political shambles left by the war, the inter-war years were a period of internal strife and bloodshed. Bulgaria joined the Axis Powers in 1941, with the result that Sofia was heavily bombed by Allied air forces in 1943 and occupied by the Red Army in September 1944. The Soviet occupation would last until the collapse of the Iron Curtain in 1989, latest act in the city's long history of turmoil.

Sogut, located in present-day Turkey, is a town of great historical significance as the birthplace of the Ottoman Empire. In the late 13th century, it served as the stronghold of Ertugrul Bey, leader of the Kayi tribe of Oghuz Turks. His son, Osman I, would go on to establish the Ottoman state, which grew into one of the most powerful empires in history.

During its early years, Sogut was a frontier settlement, strategically positioned between the weakening Byzantine Empire and emerging Turkish principalities. It became a launching point for Ottoman expansion, with Osman and his successors gradually conquering surrounding territories.

Today, Sogut is a small but culturally significant town. It hosts annual ceremonies commemorating the founding of the Ottoman Empire and remains a site of pilgrimage for those interested in Turkish and Ottoman history.

Perched on steep escarpments at the confluence of two rivers in present-day Nigeria, Sokoto was the fortress - capital of the Sokoto Caliphate, one of the largest Islamic states in 19th-century Africa. Before its rise, the site had been the center of several smaller Islamic kingdoms of pre-colonial Sudan, though their records have been largely lost to history.

The caliphate was established in the early 1800s by Usman dan Fodio following his Fulani-led jihad. Sokoto became the political and spiritual heart of the new state, reaching its peak of influence in the 1820s. It governed a vast network of emirates through a combination of religious authority and military strength, fostering Islamic scholarship and jurisprudence.

The first European to reach Sokoto was the Scottish explorer Hugh Clapperton in 1827. By the turn of the 20th century, British forces sought to control the region as part of their Nigerian colony. In 1903, the English captured Sokoto, dismantling the caliphate and absorbing much of its territory into British Nigeria, ending its two centuries of independence.

The capital city of the Republic of Malta, located south of Sicily in the Mediterranean Sea, Valletta was founded by Jean Parisot de la Valette, Grandmaster of the Order of Malta. The island of Malta was given to the Knights Hospitaller, a Christian military order, by Spanish King Charles V in 1530 during the height of the Islamic Ottoman Empire's power. This eventually led to the famous Siege of Malta in 1565, when the Ottomans moved to invade the island and conquer the Knights. In successfully repelling the invasion, the Order of Malta decided to construct a new, fortified city to ensure their position would be secure from future attacks. Valetta was founded along the Maltese coastline, an ideal location that provided easy access to two major harbors. The Grand Harbor, as it's known today, is the most crucial port on Malta, handling much of the republic's import and export duties.

Situated in the rolling countryside of southern England, Winchester traces its origins to the Iron Age and Roman Britain, where it was known as Venta Belgarum. After the Roman withdrawal, the town became a prominent center of the West Saxons and was chosen as the capital of the kingdom of Wessex under King Egbert in the early 9th century.

Winchester flourished as a political and ecclesiastical hub during the reign of Alfred the Great, who made it the de facto capital of Anglo-Saxon England. The city's walls were rebuilt, and it became home to a major royal palace and an influential cathedral. Its scribes produced the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, one of the most important historical records of the era.

Following the Norman Conquest in 1066, Winchester retained its prestige, even as power gradually shifted to London. It remained a royal and religious center well into the Middle Ages, with its cathedral - rebuilt in grand Norman style - continuing to draw pilgrims and scholars.

Although eclipsed by other cities in later centuries, Winchester's legacy as a cradle of English monarchy and learning remains intact. Its ancient streets, cathedral, and historic significance mark it as a city steeped in regal tradition and scholarly influence.

Nestled at the foot of the Bogd Khan mountain range in central Mongolia, Zuunmod has long stood as a strategic gateway to the capital heartland. Though the town itself emerged more recently, the surrounding area was the site of significant military conflict in the 17th century, most notably the Battle of Jao Modo in 1649. This clash saw the Khalkha Mongols, with the backing of the Qing dynasty, decisively defeat the westward-advancing Dzungar Khanate, halting their bid for dominance over eastern Mongolia.

The victory at Jao Modo proved pivotal in reshaping the political landscape of the region. It marked the beginning of Qing influence over Khalkha Mongolia and set the stage for the eventual incorporation of much of the Mongol steppe into the Qing Empire. The battle is remembered for its scale, coordination between cavalry and infantry, and its long-term impact on regional power dynamics.

In the centuries that followed, the area around Zuunmod retained military importance as a southern defense zone and supply route to Ikh Khüree (modern Ulaanbaatar). During the 20th century, Zuunmod developed into a modest administrative and garrison town. Today, it is a popular waypoint for tourists exploring the nearby ruins of Manzushir Monastery, or taking trails into the Bogd Khan holy mountain and UNESCO biosphere reserve.

Archeological excavations show that the site of Byblos on the Mediterranean coast was first inhabited in the Neolithic Age; by the fourth millennium BC a large settlement there supported itself through fishing and inland agriculture. Over the next thousand years an extensive export in cedar - its wood indispensable in the building of boats and docks, its oil used for the mummification of bodies - to Egypt evolved. The Amorites burned the city during their invasion c. 2150 BC; the site lay barren for almost two centuries before the Phoenicians rebuilt the harbor, naming the town Gebal. The town made its most important contribution to human civilization with the development of a 22-character phonetic alphabet, replacing the complex cuneiform previously used in the region.

A commercial center, Gebal grew ever richer under successive occupiers: Assyria, Babylon, Achaemenid and Persia. Following conquest by Alexander, Byblos prospered as a Hellenized city, its citizens adopting Greek dress, language and religion. Along with cedar, grain and fruit, the town became famous for the production and export of papyrus, from which it took its Greek name Byblos. During the Roman era the city lost its commercial preeminence, but its religious role increased as hordes passed through it on pilgrimages to various holy sites.

In 395 AD Byblos became part of the Byzantine Empire, albeit a backwater port in its realm, until Muslim invaders overran it in 637. Under Muslim rule the city, now known as Jbail, declined even further in wealth and influence, eventually abandoned completely. Byblos disappeared into obscurity until excavations by the French historian Ernest Renan in the 1860s. Although Byblos will never again be a maritime power, it is re-emerging as an upscale tourist hub, with vacationers drawn to its sandy beaches, mild climate, and extensive ruins from the Roman, Muslim and Crusader eras.

Located on the southern edge of Africa, Cape Town is the first European settlement in South Africa. In 1652 the Dutch East India Company established a refreshment station for its ships on the shores of Table Bay, a harbor just to the northwest of the Cape of Good Hope with convenient access to fresh water. Within a few years Dutch colonists ventured outside of the forts and set up farmsteads, working the fields with African slaves imported from other locations. The local native inhabitants (the Khoekhoe, whom the Dutch called "Hottentots") were not enslaved, and in fact many lived side by side with, and in some cases intermarried with, the colonists. By the turn of the century the town had some 200 houses and a thriving port.

During the seventeenth century the port continued to grow in size and in strategic importance, its position allowing the Dutch to dominate the Cape of Good Hope, the primary water passage between Europe and the Far East. The British sought to occupy the port in 1781, during the American Revolution, but a French fleet beat them to it, establishing a garrison to help the Dutch keep it out of British control.

As the century progressed the British dominance of the high seas gave them increasing leverage over African colonies. Ownership of Cape Town passed back and forth between England and the Netherlands, and by 1814 title of the colony had passed to Britain permanently. The British freed the slaves in 1834, and within a few years the young city's population reached some 20,000 citizens. In 1870 diamonds were discovered inland from the city, and roughly 16 years later gold was found as well. This brought a massive influx of prospectors and those who supported/preyed upon them to the city and the land beyond.

At the turn of the 20th century the Boer War (1899-1902) broke out between the British and the Boer Republics, which, depending upon which historians you read, was a fight to end growing British tyranny over the people of Dutch ancestry, a rebellion by Afrikaans seeking to continue to enslave and oppress non-Whites, or a war between greedy politicians over the growing profits from the gold and diamond mines. The war was long and bitter, and though fighting took place miles inland, the city was an important military base for the British, and it gained an industrial base constructing war materials and other supplies.

In 1910 the British colonies of Cape Colony, Transvaal, Natal and Orange River were unified into the Union of South Africa, and Cape Town was its capital. The 20th century saw increased efforts by the European inhabitants to protect themselves from what they saw as a growing threat of being overwhelmed by the African natives. Increasingly odious apartheid laws relegated non-white citizens to subservient status, with limited access to employment and education, and almost no say in government or control over their own affairs. The struggle for equality intensified over the course of the century and, along with internal resistance, the white government faced growing sanctions from the rest of the world. By 1990 the apartheid system was in collapse, and Cape Town and South Africa saw the appointment of Nelson Mandela as president, the first black man to ever hold that title.

Modern Cape Town is a vibrant, growing city. It still faces the after-effects of years of inter-racial struggle and the poverty and lack of education of a large portion of its native inhabitants. But it survived the transition from apartheid to near universal democracy with remarkably little violence (thanks largely to the genius of Nelson Mandela). Though the city is troubled by the ailments that face all modern cities (and some unique to itself), Cape Town's future remains bright.

Once a small fishing village known as Havn, Copenhagen is now the largest city and capital of the Kingdom of Denmark. While some archaeological finds date the town back to the late Viking age, the founding of Copenhagen is traditionally set in 1167, when the Danish Bishop Absalon fortified the harbor town. The well-protected harbor established Copenhagen's importance as a center of trade and commerce for centuries to come, and it was made the capital of Denmark early in the 15th century. Unfortunately, other civilizations also noticed the natural riches of Copenhagen's harbor, and the city was attacked numerous times, especially by the Hanseatic League (a trade organization running a monopoly along the coast of Northern Europe).

In 1658 the Swedes unsuccessfully tried to take the city, but in 1807 the British succeeded where they could not; a preemptive naval blockade, following by a sweeping firebombing bombardment on civilian buildings and its failing old defenses, caused massive damage to the city and left hundreds dead. After the end of the Napoleonic wars, the city began to rebuild and expand over the now useless defensive inland moats, improving sanitation and incorporating nearby towns in the process. Copenhagen was occupied by the Germans in World War II, but did not sustain any substantial damage and continued to expand greatly after the war's end.

Copenhagen is now recognized as one of the up-and-coming cities in Europe and is ranked the "most livable city in the world" for its wonderful quality of life. The city is also renowned for its extensive public infrastructure and environmentally-friendly policies. Copenhagen is now one of the most visited cities in Europe and has become a veritable Mecca for the world's new architects, chefs, and designers.

Dorestad was a major trading center in the early medieval Low Countries, located in what is now the Netherlands. Flourishing between the 7th and 9th centuries, it was strategically situated along the banks of the Rhine River, making it a hub for commerce between the Frankish Empire, Scandinavia, and the British Isles.

The city's prosperity was built on its role as a key trading post, facilitating the exchange of goods such as textiles, wine, and luxury items. However, Dorestad's wealth also made it a target for Viking raids, which, along with shifting river courses and changing trade patterns, contributed to its decline by the late 9th century.

Today, little remains of Dorestad, but archaeological excavations have uncovered valuable artifacts that provide insights into its vibrant past. The site continues to be studied as an important link in the economic and political history of early medieval Europe.

Originally founded as Heraclea in the 6th century AD, Eraclea was established by Venetian settlers fleeing the Lombard invasions of northern Italy. Located in the Venetian Lagoon, it became an important early center of administration for the emerging Republic of Venice.

During the early medieval period, Eraclea played a crucial role in the region's political landscape. It was the site of power struggles among noble Venetian families, including the Partecipazio dynasty, which helped shape the republic's governance. However, as Rialto (modern Venice) gained prominence, Eraclea gradually lost its political significance.

Today, Eraclea is a small town known for its proximity to the Adriatic Sea and its historical remnants, including ancient ruins and the legacy of its Venetian past. It remains a reminder of the Republic of Venice's formative years and the resilience of its early settlers.

The city of Helsinki was founded in 1550 by King Gustav I of Sweden, who hoped to create a rival port city to the nearby Reval (or Tallinn, Estonia today). However, fate decided that Helsinki would remain a small, unimportant town - plagued by poverty and war - for the next two centuries. Helsinki's outlook was not improved when the plague hit the city in 1710, killing off a full two-thirds of the inhabitants. It wasn't until The Grand Duchy of Finland was created by Russia's defeat of Sweden during the Finnish War of 1809 that the city began to improve and grow - slowly.

The capital of the new country was moved to Helsinki in a bid to improve its stunted development, but to little avail. Later the country's only university, the Royal Academy of Turku, was moved to Helsinki in 1827 in a further attempt to bring people to the city. This turned out to be the best thing to happen to Helsinki since its founding. With the influx of students and teachers (not to mention money) provided by the university, the city began to develop and rapidly grow, quickly modernizing and installing the new advances in transportation and industrialization.

Helsinki suffered a setback in 1918 when it fell to the Red Guards on the first day of the Finnish Civil War. The city only sustained very minor damage from its quick capture, and was liberated by the allied German and White forces later in the year. The quality of life in the city began to slowly improve after the civil war's end, but growth was stunted once again when the city was repeatedly bombed during the Winter and Continuation Wars of the 1940's.

The second best thing since the city's founding occurred in 1952, when it hosted the Summer Olympics (the city was supposed to have hosted the 1940 Summer Olympics, but these were cancelled due to World War II - such is Helsinki's bad luck). The influx of tourism and money helped push the late-blooming city into a period of rapid urbanization, tripling the population in a short twenty years. While the city is still the second most sparsely populated EU capital (after Brussels), it is now one of the fastest growing urban centers in Europe.

Serving as the capital of Indonesia, Jakarta is both the largest and most culturally-diverse city in the Southeast Asian country. Since the first settlements in the area of Jakarta were laid by Hindu pilgrims in the 4th century AD, the city has been known by many names, and controlled by an equally extensive number of empires. For nearly 1,000 years, Jakarta was part of the Kingdom of Sunda, who ruled a number of surrounding territories along the Indian Ocean. With the arrival of Portuguese explorers in the 16 century, the lucrative spice trade was quickly established with Jakarta being the primary port in the region.

The Kingdom of Sunda eventually fell to the Muslim Sultanate of Fatahillah, who also expelled the Portuguese from the region. However, trade routes were reestablished soon after with the arrival of Dutch and English traders, including the influential English East India Company. After repeated conflicts between the two colonial powers vying for trade dominance, the Dutch and their own East India Company emerged victorious.

The Dutch East India Company remained the dominant trading power in the region's islands until its eventual dissolution in 1800, when the Dutch formally declared the formation of the Dutch East Indies, which covered much of the area known today as Indonesia. In 1950, the efforts of Indonesian nationalists succeeded in gaining full independence for the nation, with Jakarta established as its capital. Although the city and its residents have often been enveloped in political unrest and instability, the economy of Jakarta continues to grow as foreign investors seek new markets for development.

As one of the oldest cities in the world, Portugal's capital, Lisbon, has long been a prized trade hub on the Iberian Peninsula. Although Lisbon has existed in one form or another for thousands of years, the city became an integral part of the Roman trade network following their victory over Carthage during the Punic Wars. Growing over the centuries, Lisbon continually expanded as its port became the point of departure for Portuguese vessels sailing throughout the world. During the Age of Discovery in the 15th century, many notable Portuguese explorers set out from Lisbon, including Vasco da Gama, the first to sail from Europe to India.

In 1755, one of the deadliest earthquakes in recorded history, the Great Lisbon Earthquake, rattled the Iberian Peninsula, nearly destroying all of Lisbon. Modern historians estimate that up to 100,000 people may have been killed as a result of the quake, and extensive reconstruction efforts were required to rebuild the crumbling city.

In the present day, Lisbon is home to more than 500,000 residents and serves as one of Portugal's leading centers of commerce and trade. Lisbon is also a popular tourist destination, as the city features numerous examples of historic architecture, along with several famous museums and cultural festivals.

Although accurate historical records of Manila's early history are limited, sometime around the 10th century AD, the site of the Philippine's future capital city was settled in its earliest incarnation. It wasn't until 1571 however, with the arrival of Spanish Conquistador Miguel Lopez de Legazpi, that the existing settlements were destroyed, and the reconstructed city first came to be known as Manila. For the next 300 years, Manila and the Philippine islands remained under Spanish control. In 1898, Spain relinquished the Philippine territories to the United States after the Spanish-American War.

Manila's port, simply known as the Port of Manila, is one of the busiest seaports in the world, and the primary means of import and export within the Philippines. With a diverse variety of exported products, ranging from food and local commodities, to chemicals and industrial products, the Philippines rely heavily on Manila's port to maintain their flourishing economy. Tourism is also a major component of the local economy in Manila, as visitors come from around the world to see the historic walled district within Manila known as the Intramuros.

According to the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, Mogadishu was already a major maritime center in the 1st Century AD when Roman merchants began trading from Egyptian ports along the Red Sea coast. With the settlement of Muslim traders in the Somali city around 900 AD, trade routes were expanded to distant realms such as China, Vietnam and Sri Lanka. By the time the Moroccan explorer and author ibn-Batuta arrived in 1331, Mogadishu was at the zenith of its prosperity, the pre-eminent city on the Horn of Africa.

The wealth of Mogadishu became the stuff of legend in Europe, supported by the observations of travelers. Vasco de Gama, who stopped in the city in the 15th Century, noted that it was well defended and well built, with houses of four or five stories, large palaces in the center, and many mosques. The following century the Portuguese traveler Duarte Barbosa wrote of hundreds of ships from distant lands that sailed into its harbor with cargos of cloth and spices which they bartered for gold, wax and ivory. Barbosa also described Mogadishu as the center of a thriving weaving industry that produced a light-weight fabric highly valued in Egypt and Syria.

Spurred by greed, European powers sought to incorporate the city into their colonial empires; the Portuguese tried unsuccesfully and later the British East India Company briefly established control. In 1892 AD the Zanzibar sultan leased Mogadishu to Italy, which made it the capital of Italian Somalia in 1905. In 1960 Somalia achieved its independence peacefully. But the democracy collapsed in the course of the 1991 civil war. Since 1994, when the United Nations withdrew its peacekeeping force, Mogadishu has been torn by near constant fighting between rival militias. In such chaos, the once thriving port has fallen into disrepair and disuse.

Although the founding of Mombasa is shrouded in conflicting historical records, it is believed the city, now the second largest in Kenya, was settled sometime around the 10th century AD. By the Middle Ages, Mombasa had grown into a flourishing city with an economy primarily based on the export of Ivory. Mombasa was also known for its vast network of plantations producing coconuts, cashews, and millet, which were then shipped out along the trade routes crossing the Indian Ocean. Mombasa's port, known as the Kilindini Harbor, is the only international seaport in Kenya, which has allowed the city to become a major center of commerce and trade for the entire nation. In the present day, Mombasa's largest exports continue to be agricultural in nature, particularly coffee, tea, and grain.

The city-state of Ormus dates back to the 10th Century AD when Arab princes sought to establish a port off the south coast of Persia to control trade through the Persian Gulf. The city dominates the narrow Strait of Hormuz, the strategic waterway linking the Gulf of Oman and the Persian Gulf. Ormus grew immensely rich by being the crucial stage on the slave routes from East Africa into Persia and Arabia. At the zenith of its influence in the 14th Century, it was the most powerful maritime state in the region, with a large commercial fleet and a navy of 500 warships.

In 1505 AD, King Manuel I of Portugal decided to block Muslim trade with India. Afonso de Albuquerque took his ships into the gulf in 1507, captured the island of Hormuz, built a fort there, and claimed the city of Ormus for Portugal. In March 1515 Albuquerque returned with a fleet of 27 vessels, 1500 soldiers with cannons to insure that the city remained under Portuguese rule. The city became known for its licentiousness and guilty pleasures, according to accounts by Portuguese visitors and priests. The luxury and leisure of Ormus is captured in an Arab saying of the time: "If all the world were a golden ring, Ormus would be the jewel in it."

Although largely bypassed by maritime routes for three centuries after, the discovery of oil in the Persian Gulf and Middle East again gave the city a new role in world trade. In 2011 AD, 35% of the world's seaborne oil shipments passed by the city. The Iranian Revolution that disposed the absolute monarchy in favor of an Islamic fundamentalist republic under the Ayatollah Khomeini in 1979 only heightened the city's strategic significance, as the new government proved hostile to the Western powers.

According to legend, Oslo was founded by King Harald Hardrada (or Hardråde) of Norway in 1048, but archaeological excavations show that some urban settlement at the site preceded that date. The first King of Norway did not reside in the city until much later, sometime in the early 14th century AD, when it became officially regarded as the capital city of the country.

Unfortunately (as medieval cities were wont to do), Oslo was destroyed several times by fire in the coming centuries, and in 1624 King Christian IV ordered the city rebuilt at a new site across the bay; the city was also renamed Christiana in honor of its new founding. Christiana was a local center of commerce, but its importance declined while Norway was a part of Denmark, during which its growth slowed to a halt. After the two countries separated in 1814, Christiana grew into the largest city in Norway (overtaking Bergen), as the newly founded University of Oslo helped to fuel the population and economy. The city's name was restored to "Oslo" in 1925.

Growth in the city has remained a source of contention, as the citizens fight both growing up (with skyscrapers) and out (destroying the local farming and fishing communities). The last century has seen a grand increase in the economy and industry of the city, and Oslo now is home to some of the world's largest maritime shipping companies. Oslo has also recently gained the dubious honor of being the most expensive city in the world to live in, as space for apartments grows to an even higher premium.

Pago Pago, the capital of American Samoa, is situated on the island of Tutuila in the South Pacific. The city is known for its deep natural harbor, which has made it a strategic naval and commercial port throughout history. First settled by Polynesians over a thousand years ago, Pago Pago became an important cultural and trading hub in the region.

In the late 19th century, Pago Pago came under American control, becoming a crucial coaling station for the U.S. Navy. During World War II, the harbor played a significant role in the Pacific theater, serving as a naval base and logistical center. American influence has remained strong in the region, shaping its political and economic development.

Today, Pago Pago is a vibrant city with a unique blend of Polynesian and American influences. Tourism, fishing, and government services drive its economy, while its stunning natural beauty, including rainforests and volcanic mountains, make it a popular destination for visitors.

Panama City, capital of the Republic of Panama, is the Pacific terminus of the Panama Canal on the Gulf of Panama. The word "panama" means "many fish," and the city is built on the site of a large native fishing village existing when the Spanish conquistadors arrived. The port city was founded in 1519 AD by the Spanish governor of Panama on the Pacific side of the isthmus to facilitate the trans-shipment of goods and treasure from the Atlantic. It served as the principle staging point for the conquest of the Incan Empire, and the Incan riches passed through on the way to Spain's treasury.

The city quickly became wealthy from this trade, and was subsequently plundered and burned by the English pirate Sir Henry Morgan. Three years later, the city was rebuilt slightly to the south. Although Panama City itself was thereafter well defended by the Spanish, the 1746 destruction of the Caribbean port at Portobelo dealt a serious blow to the overland trade route. Panama City declined in wealth and prestige, although it returned to prominence again a century later when the Panama Railroad opened and gold seekers bound for California flowed across the isthmus by rail and road. Ships from Panama City carried the flood of peoples and supplies north that the Gold Rush unleashed.

After Panama declared its independence from Columbia in 1903, the city was established as the capital. When the Panama Canal was completed in 1914, the city emerged as Central America's hub for international commerce, trade and tourism. Home to over 80 banks, today Panama City is considered the wealthiest city in Latin America. The recent spate of foreign investment in Panamanian shipping and the 2006 referendum to expand the Canal means the city is likely to continue its remarkable economic boom.

Located in the fertile plains of southern Anatolia near the Mediterranean coast, Perge was an ancient city of Pamphylia, flourishing especially during the Hellenistic and Roman periods. Situated along the Cestrus River (now Aksu), it served as a prosperous cultural and religious center, famed for its impressive colonnaded streets, theater, and the grand Temple of Artemis Pergaia.

Founded as early as the Bronze Age and later colonized by Greeks, Perge rose to prominence under Alexander the Great and subsequently under Seleucid and Roman rule. Its strategic inland location protected it from pirate raids that plagued the coastline, enabling the city to develop as a stable hub of commerce and art. During the Roman era, it was embellished with monumental architecture, aqueducts, and public baths, many of which remain partially intact today.

One of Perge's most notable historical figures is the mathematician and astronomer Apollonius of Perga, whose work on conic sections laid important foundations for later mathematical developments. The city was also an early center of Christianity, visited by St. Paul during his missionary journeys.

Though it declined after Arab invasions in the 7th century, Perge's ruins remain a testament to its former grandeur. Today, it stands as a key archaeological site in modern Turkey, offering visitors a vivid glimpse into the layered history of Anatolia and the legacy of ancient urban life.

Quebec City, founded in 1608 by the French explorer Samuel de Champlain, was once the location of a small Iroquois village known as Stadaconé. Taking its name from the Algonquin word "Kebec," meaning "where the river becomes narrow," the settlement of Quebec City would grow to become the center of French colonial efforts in North America throughout the 17th century.

During its early development, Quebec City served not only as a valuable trade outpost, but also as a home to various Christian missionaries and an increasing number of permanent settlers. The fur and lumber industries provided the French with valuable resources that strengthened early efforts to expand their reach in North America. Briefly passing under British rule from 1629 until 1632, the city would otherwise be controlled by the French for over 150 years, despite several sieges. In 1663, Quebec City was officially named the capital of New France, having already served as the capital of French Canada since its founding.

The French would finally lose control of the colony in 1759 to the British during the Battle of the Plains of Abraham. Britain would remain in control of Quebec City until the formation of the Dominion of Canada in 1867. Following the Constitution Act of Canada, Quebec City would become the capital of the Canadian Province of Quebec.

Today, Quebec City is home to over 500,000 residents, and continues to thrive with a rich cultural heritage. Named a UNESCO World Heritage site in 1985, Quebec City still maintains much of the historic architecture from its colonial roots. Of particular interest are the famous Château Frontenac hotel, and the Roman Catholic churches of Notre-Dame de Québec and Notre-Dame-des-Victoires, both originally constructed in the 17th century.

The modern Croatian city of Dubrovnik was at one time a powerful city-state known as the Republic of Ragusa. Established in the 7th century, the city of Ragusa is believed to have originally been founded on a small island nestled in the Adriatic Sea, not far off the southern coast of modern Croatia. These founders, a group of Roman refugees, established the settlement after fleeing the destruction of their home city of Epidaurus. Over time, the city would expand into the surrounding region thanks to assistance from the Byzantine and Ottoman Empires as well as the kings of Croatia and Hungary. The development of the city, particularly into key areas such as the Harbor of Gruz (a crucial port even today) would draw the ire of Venice, whose dominance of maritime trade had previously been unrivaled.

Beginning in 1205 when Venice invaded what was then known as Dalmatia (a region of Eastern Croatia), Ragusa was forced into a position of suzerainty, providing extensive tribute to Venice while also serving as the Venetian naval base in the Adriatic Sea. Despite the pressures of Venetian influence, Ragusa's own development as a center of trade on the Adriatic would continue. Venice's meddling, however, took its toll on the populace and growing resentment amongst the Ragusan people towards Venice during this period would mark the beginning of a longstanding economic rivalry between the two city-states. After Venice yielded its claims to Dalmatia in 1358, Ragusa finally had an opportunity to gain real autonomy. The Republic of Ragusa was established soon after, the city's aristocracy quick to consolidate power amongst themselves. The nobility managed nearly all aspects of Ragusan politics, leaving the citizens and plebeians with almost no voice at all. This government would operate autonomously, under the sovereignty of the Hungarian king, for the next 100 years.

In 1458, a treaty signed with the Ottoman Empire would solidify Ragusa's position as a powerful trade center for the remainder of its time as a republic. Under the protection of the Ottomans, the city thrived. Reduced customs fees, access to the Black Sea (previously restricted to Ottoman merchants), and Ottoman backing in trade disputes would all provide valuable advantages bolstering Ragusa's position as the dominant Adriatic port.

At its peak, Ragusa had a population approaching 30,000 people, and served as a crucial link between the ports of Italy and the destinations of the East. However, as goods from India, China and beyond became more readily available, Ragusa's commercial influence dwindled. A massive earthquake would strike the city in 1667, destroying nearly 75% of the structures and killing over 5,000 residents. A shell of its former self, in 1806 the city was finally surrendered to the army of Napoleon and by 1808 the Republic of Ragusa was no more.

Today, the city of Dubrovnik is a popular tourist destination on the Adriatic Sea with a population of over 40,000. Dubrovnik also remains a commercial seaport, one of the few remaining remnants of its storied past.

In the 12th Century AD German traders and missionaries built the town of Riga at the mouth of the Daugava around an existing settlement. By 1158 German merchants had established posts there to trade with the Balts and Finns; the first Catholic monastery was completed in 1190. In 1201 the newly proclaimed bishop of Livonia, Albert, arrived with 23 ships and 1500 armed crusaders - later organized into a branch of the Teutonic Knights - to establish his bishopric, forcibly converting the locals to Christianity. In 1282 Riga joined the Hanseatic League, insuring its commercial and political stability for three centuries.

When Riga's leaders publically accepted the Reformation in 1522 and the power of the archbishops collapsed, the city quickly became embroiled in the religious wars. Forty years later it was captured by Gustavus Adolphus, King of Sweden, who had intervened in the Thirty Years War. Riga remained Swedish until 1710, when the plague-stricken port surrendered to Russian forces under Peter the Great during the Great Northern War. Riga became Tsarist Russia's largest industrialized port city until the end of World War I, when the Russian Revolution left its Baltic holdings to declare their independence in November 1918. Riga became Latvia's capital.

Through the inter-war years, Riga prospered. But Latvia's freedom was tenuous, and Riga was occupied first by the Soviet Union in June 1940 and a year later by the Nazi invaders. The Red Army's recapture of the city in 1944 was followed by an influx of Soviet workers, bureaucrats and troops to turn Riga into the most important industrial-military complex in the western USSR. The port was expanded and modernized to provide a trade outlet to the West. In January 1991, with Latvia's independence, Riga returned its former commercial concerns, making it once more a financial powerhouse in the Baltic.

Portuguese explorers first came across the Rio de Janeiro area in 1502 AD, which was at the time inhabited by four different groups of indigenous peoples. A small fortified settlement was erected at the site, both to deal with the natives and to fend off encroaching attacks from French pirates. On March 1, 1565, the city center was officially founded. The fertile land surrounding the settlement was planted with sugarcane and provided all of the city's early income. The small city grew to about 8,000 people by 1700, but two thirds of these were probably slaves.

About this time scouts found gold and diamonds in the neighboring hills, generating a huge influx of both wealth and immigrants. The city tripled in size and the colonial capital was transferred here in 1763. Rio continued to wildly grow and the city spilled beyond its fortified walls. Many large Romanesque aqueducts were also built at this time, the ruins of which still stand in the city. However, towards the end of the century the mines began to dry up and Central America entered the world economy with a strong sugar market of its own, both of which put Rio in a precarious position. Exports had fallen by more than half of what they were by 1796.

Coffee saved the day for Rio. In 1808 the Portuguese royal family fled to the city to escape Napoleon's invasion of Portugal, temporarily transforming Rio into the capital of the Portuguese Empire. They ordered the growing of the bean and resettled themselves in Brazil, bringing a new-found prosperity to the colony. Expansion of the coffee plantations gave birth to a new wave of improvements in the city, and large manor homes were built, streets were paved, and fine academic institutions were founded.

In 1822 Prince Pedro I proclaimed Brazil's independence, and named Rio as the capital of the new empire. When the country replaced the monarchy with a republic in 1889, it kept Rio as the capital city. Rio was further transformed into a modern city through the early 1900's as streets were widened, health conditions of its populace were improved, and the surrounding swamps were drained and reclaimed for future building sites. In 1960 the capital was moved to the newly constructed city of Brasilia, and the growth of Rio finally began to slow.

Rio de Janeiro is famous worldwide for its carnival celebrations, the invention of samba music, the Cristo Redentor (a modern Wonder of the World), and its landmark beaches. Despite challenges related to urbanization and crime, it remains one of Brazil's most vibrant cities and a major cultural and economic hub in South America. Millions of tourists continue to visit each year to sample its charm, beauty, and relaxed spirit.

The earliest written documentation of Stockholm dates back to 1252 AD and describes the city as an iron trading town, but in some Norse sagas it is claimed to be the lost city of Agnafit (where legendary King Agne was hanged by his captive bride Skjalf). Another tale states that the city was founded by the Swede Birger Jarl to protect the fledgling country from invading navies. Regardless of whichever is correct, the city quickly grew into a center for commerce, mining, and fishing. Stockholm over time grew into an important Danish mercantile city, as trade in the Baltic boomed with the advent of the Hanseatic League.

In the 15th century a national independence movement began to form in Stockholm as the people of Sweden yearned to overthrow their Danish rulers. The revolution did not go well, unfortunately, and in 1520 the Danish King Christian II entered the city and incited the Stockholm Bloodbath, a gruesome massacre of many of the Swedish opposition forces. Further uprisings across the country in the coming years were more successful and broke up the Kalmar Union (the pleasant name for the Danish control of Scandinavia), and Sweden gained its independence from the Danes. The first king of Sweden, Gustav Vasa, was crowned in 1523, and the population of Stockholm began to rapidly grow. Within a hundred years, the population of the city increased over six times in size.

In 1634, Stockholm was named the capital of the Swedish Empire and a bevy of new trading laws gave it complete control over trade between foreign merchants and its own Swedish territories. This "golden age" ended emphatically some forty years later, as the Black Death reached the city and war broke out between Sweden and its allies. Under the twin catastrophes Stockholm stagnated economically for some time, but it did continue to develop culturally. It took nearly two hundred years for the city to regain its leading economic role.

During the last half of the 20th century Stockholm became the technological and economic hub of the country. To make way for booming industry and population growth, many historic buildings (a great majority of which had been around since the Middle Ages) were torn down and replaced with new architectural structures. The city has continued to move away from its roots of fishing, mining, and other labor-intensive industries and move towards high-tech electronics, architecture, and modern services.

Sydney, located on the southeastern coast of Australia, was not only the first British colony established on the continent, but also the first European settlement of any kind. Founded by Admiral Arthur Phillip in 1788 as a penal colony, Sydney's early development would be led initially by convicts, and later continued by retired soldiers and settlers arriving from Britain. Over time, Sydney would grow to become the largest and perhaps most famous city in Australia, with a population of over 4 million people today.

Scouted by James Cook in 1770, the original landing site, known famously as "Botany Bay", was deemed unsuitable for the location of a permanent settlement. The nearby Sydney Cove named for "Lord Sydney" Thomas Townshend, would prove to be the ideal location. This area is thought to have been inhabited by Australian Aborigines for several thousand years prior to the arrival of British colonists, and numerous tribes were found in the region upon their arrival. Despite the efforts of Admiral Phillip to regulate the interaction between colonists and the local tribesmen, thousands of Aborigines would die from smallpox and measles spread by colonial expeditions.

During its later history, Sydney experienced a massive population boom throughout the 19th century as gold was discovered in neighboring areas, particularly Bathurst. Greatly expanding its industrial development during this period, by the 1920s, Sydney's population would reach over 1 million and the city would continue expanding to meet its growing infrastructure needs.

In the present day, Sydney is known for its financial development, serving as the economic hub for all of Australia. Home to numerous major banks and financial institutions, the Australian Securities Exchange is also located in Sydney. Since the early 1800s, the date of Sydney's founding, January 26th, has been celebrated as Australia's national day, commemorating not only the city's history, but also its importance to Australia in the present day.

Trowulan, located in East Java, Indonesia, was the capital of the Majapahit Empire, which thrived between the 13th and 15th centuries AD. As the political and cultural heart of one of Southeast Asia's greatest maritime empires, Trowulan was a bustling urban center, featuring grand palaces, temples, canals, and marketplaces that facilitated trade and governance.

The city played a key role in Majapahit's expansion, with its influence extending across much of present-day Indonesia, Malaysia, and beyond. It was home to a highly organized society, where art, literature, and Hindu-Buddhist traditions flourished. The Nagarakretagama, an epic poem from the era, describes the city's grandeur and its role in the empire's administration.

By the late 15th century, Trowulan began to decline due to internal strife and external pressures, including the rise of Islamic sultanates. Eventually abandoned, its ruins were rediscovered in the 19th century, and today, Trowulan remains an important archaeological site, offering valuable insights into Indonesia's pre-colonial history.

Originally a coastal city on the mouth of the Euphrates at the north end of the Persian Gulf, the ruins of Ur now lie inland about 150 miles, six miles from the right bank of the river. Mentioned in Genesis as the birthplace of the Jewish patriarch Abraham, "Ur of the Chaldees" was founded c. 5500 BC in the Ubiad period of Sumer. Controlling trade between the villages along the Euphrates and Tigris and the sea, Ur was favorably located for development into a commercial and political center. Founder of the first dynasty of Ur, Mesanepada oversaw the construction of docks and levees to control the annual river floods. By 2800 BC it had become one of the first Sumerian city-states, and trade routes between Mesopotamia and India, Ethiopia and Egypt passed through it.

After a period of decline and stagnation, under Ur-Nammu Ur experienced a renaissance of Sumerian art, literature and culture. Historians' estimates make Ur the largest city in the world from 2030 through 1980 BC, with a population in excess of 65,000. But under the last three kings of the third dynasty Ur's influence and wealth declined; around 1940 BC the city was captured and sacked by the Elamites.

Rebuilt shortly thereafter, Ur became part of the kingdom of Isin, later incorporated into the Babylonian Empire. Still an important religious center, its commercial influence declined, possibly as a result of a shift in the course of the Euphrates. After Babylon itself came under Persian control, Ur was largely ignored. Its population moved away; its walls and temples fell into ruin; its anchorage was buried in sand and soil. By the 4th Century BC, Ur was practically forgotten until rediscovered and partially excavated by the British vice counsel at Basra, John G. Taylor, beginning in 1854 AD.

The native peoples of the region had lived in the Pacific Northwest for 10,000 years when British naval captain George Vancouver landed at Point Grey in 1792 AD. In 1808, the British trader Simon Fraser travelled down the river that bears his name as far as Point Grey. Based on reports from Fraser and other trappers, in 1827 the Hudson Bay Company built Fort Langley - but the area remained little inhabited until the Fraser Gold Rush in 1858, when miners from California and eastern Canada poured in.

A more enduring source of wealth soon became the basis for greater growth. A number of lumber mills were established along the shores of the inlet; in 1867 a crude settlement called Gastown sprang up around the shore-front tavern run by "Gassy" Deighton. In 1884 the town, with its magnificent natural harbor, was selected as the western terminus of the Canadian Pacific Railroad. The influx of newcomers, mostly Scandinavians and Scots, brought such rapid growth that the various settlements on the inlet were combined and incorporated as the city of Vancouver in April 1886.

With the opening of the Panama Canal in 1914 AD, it became economically feasible to ship grain and timber directly to the east coast of North America and to Europe from Vancouver. With its completion in 1923, the Ballantyne Pier made Vancouver the most technologically advanced port in the entire British Commonwealth. After World War II, the boom in Vancouver continued, making it the eighth-largest city in Canada. The rise of tourism in the North Pacific means a number of cruise ships depart regularly from Vancouver, 199 sailings in 2011. Recently, the exploration and exploitation of oil in Alaska and natural gas in western Canada have resulted in plans to make it a major crude oil and gas terminus.

The city of Venice stretches across 118 small islands in the saltwater Venetian Lagoon, between the mouths of the Po and Piave rivers. No exact date is known for the founding of Venice, but some archeological evidence shows that the city's original citizens may have been Roman refugees fleeing the Germanic invasions and the Huns. As the centuries passed, the originally small settlement began to spread across the islands, its inhabitants using the small rivulets and canals as their roads. The city fell under Byzantine rule early in its life. In the late 700's AD the ducal seat was moved to Venice and a basilica dedicated to St. Mark the Evangelist was built, heralding the birth of the "Queen of the Adriatic". The city eventually gained its independence from the Byzantines and became an autonomous city-state.

The city flourished as a trade center between Western Europe and the rest of the world, its strategic location making its commercial and naval power unmatched in the Adriatic. Venice began to expand outside of the islands as it seized cities along the eastern shores of the sea, later extending its holdings as far west as the Adda River in mainland Italy. It soon came to control most of the islands in the Aegean Sea, including Cyprus and Crete, and became a major power in the Near East. While it did take most of these cities and regions by force, the people of its empire quickly rallied to Venice's aid whenever she was threatened by invaders, as the city-state actively improved the standards of living in all these territories.

Venice's dominance was further secured in 1204 when it sacked the city of Constantinople, securing the fall of the Byzantine Empire. Considerable wealth was brought back to the city, and combined with its already formidable riches from trade, made Venice the wealthiest city in all of Europe. The city also became known as a hub for culture, music, and the arts, and was especially famous for its operatic composers. Venice can also lay claim to the invention of the paperback book, and by 1492 was the printing capital of the world.

The glory days for Venice couldn't last, and a war with the Ottoman Empire cost the city most of its eastern Mediterranean holdings, including Constantinople. Shortly thereafter Christopher Columbus discovered the New World and Portugal found a sea route to India, peacefully destroying Venice's trade route monopoly where all others had failed. In the late 1500's the city was ravaged by the Black Death, which killed over 50,000 people in three years, a third of its total population.

On May 12, 1797, Napoleon conquered Venice and ended over 1,000 years of the Republic's independence. Venice then became the property of Austria when Napoleon signed it over later that year. A revolt in the 1800's attempted to restore independence to the Republic of Venice, but in 1866 it became a part of the newly created Kingdom of Italy.

The current threat to the city comes not from war or encroachment upon its trade economy, but rather from the very environment around it - the city has slowly been sinking into the sea since artesian wells were dug into the lagoon bed in the early 20th century. The sinking has slowed dramatically as measures are being taken to preserve the city, but new plans are being put in place to either build an inflatable bulkhead (to stop rising tidal waters) or to physically raise the city itself by restoring the seabed damaged by the wells.

According to Maori legend, the Hawaiki chief Kupe arrived on the North Island of New Zealand around 925 AD after having sailed there by canoe, besting numerous sea monsters and demons to reach this promised land. Whatever the truth of that may be, in September 1839 an expedition of the London-based New Zealand Company arrived and established a landing on a flat area at the mouth of the Hutt River. The next year, the ship Aurora arrived with 150 settlers from England. The initial site proving too swampy and prone to flooding, the newcomers relocated their settlement plans across the sheltered bay and the company directors named the town Wellington (the town of Petone now sits on the site of the original landing). In 1865, the city was declared the new capital of the colony, replacing Auckland which had been made the seat of the nascent government in 1841. It was argued by the colonial administration that Wellington, with its magnificent harbor and more central location, would serve that purpose better.

Wellington lies on the Cook Strait, on hills to the southwest of the bay. On his first voyage of exploration, Royal Navy Captain James Cook, searching for the rumored continent of Terra Australis, reached the islands of New Zealand in 1770 AD. He circumnavigated and mapped the entire coastline, and made special note of the sheltered natural harbor where the New Zealand Company would establish Wellington. For most of its history, the 27 square-mile anchorage was known as Port Nicholson. After the capital was established, Wellington Harbour quickly became the most important port on the islands, serving the needs of both British naval and commercial vessels. It is today the largest container port in the region, and a tanker terminus was constructed at the industrial suburb of Seaview. In 1895 the Union Steamship Company established regular service to and from the port, and for more than a century Wellington has been the primary terminal for ferry service between the nation’s islands and beyond.

Unlike most capitals in southern Africa, Antananarivo was already a major settlement before the arrival of the Europeans. It served as the seat of the Hova chieftains, having been founded c. 1625 AD; it took its name, "City of the Thousand," from the number of soldiers reputed to guard it. Between 1689 and 1725, Madagascar was a pirate haven, and the capital city grew rich on booty and plunder paid for shelter and protection. By 1793, when it served as seat of the Merina kings who controlled all Madagascar, it was a city of about 80,000. It was the commercial center of the island; Antananarivo's thriving economy was fueled by the export of tobacco and leather goods, most bound for Europe and India.

Antananarivo was captured by French troops in 1895 AD and forcibly incorporated into their Madagascar protectorate. The new French administrators commenced an extensive rebuilding program. Under the relatively benign French rule, the city grew to 175,000 inhabitants by 1950. Along with two forts, schools and a university, parks, paved roads and paths, and a water system, the French also constructed churches - today there are some 5000 church buildings in the city and its suburbs. In 1955, it was made an archdiocese of the Catholic Church.

In 1947, with their prestige and military presence at low ebb due to World War II, the French suppressed a bloody revolt by Malagasy nationalists; between 80,000 and 90,000 died in the year-long fighting. The French subsequently instituted wide reforms under the Loi Cadre, which provided for a peaceful transition to independence for the country. Following the creation of the republic, Antananarivo was made the capital. Bolstered by lucrative industries producing food, cigarettes and textiles, the city modernized rapidly. With nearly two million citizens today, Antananarivo is one of Africa's wealthiest cities.

The city of Antwerp is located in the central European nation of Belgium, in what is known as the Low Countries. Settled by the Franks in the 4th century, Antwerp is believed to be situated on the same land as an early Roman encampment founded in the previous century. Built up over the years through the efforts of several ruling kingdoms, by the 16th century Antwerp had grown to become the wealthiest city in Europe, serving as an economic hub for traders from across the world.

During Antwerp's height as a thriving financial center, the city was home to international traders, merchants, and bankers who flocked to the growing city, bringing with them art and culture from abroad. Although the city enjoyed a period of calm and prosperity, the tumult of the Protestant Reformation, along with the increasing influence of nearby Amsterdam, led to a swift decline in Antwerp's economy and population by the 18th century.

In the 20th century, Antwerp was occupied by Germany during World War II, only to be liberated by the Allied forces after several years of conflict. Unfortunately for the people of Antwerp, Germany battered the city with V-2 rockets in an attempt to disrupt the flow of supplies arriving in Antwerp's port. Much of the city was ravaged, and it would be several decades before Antwerp again rose to its former place of prominence within Europe.

The Bornu Empire flourished from 1380 to 1893 AD, dominating the lands of what is now northeastern Nigeria, Chad, and parts of Cameroon. It was the successor state to the Kanem Empire, ruled by the Sayfawa dynasty, whose origins stretched back centuries in the central Sahel. The empire's capital shifted westward over time to better control trade routes and defend against nomadic incursions. Bornu became a hub of Saharan commerce, exporting horses, textiles, and salt, and importing luxury goods from North Africa and beyond.

Under the reign of Idris Alooma (1571-1603), Bornu reached its greatest power, territorial extent, and prosperity. Alooma was a skilled statesman and military strategist who reformed the army, improved administration, and introduced new agricultural practices. His reign brought unprecedented stability, allowing trade to flourish along the trans-Saharan routes. The empire's influence extended deep into the Sahel, and its scholars and clerics maintained close ties with Islamic centers in Cairo and Mecca.

Though Bornu endured into the late 18th century, it was weakened by internal disputes and external threats. The Fulani Jihad of the early 1800s toppled the kingdom into decades of instability. Conquered by Sudanese forces in 1893, Bornu briefly fell under Islamic Sudanese rule before being absorbed into the British Empire, forming the nucleus of the colony of Nigeria.

Found in the southern region of the U.S. state of Illinois, Cahokia was once an ancient city comprised of more than one hundred earthwork mounds, constructed around 700 AD by the Native American Mississippian culture. Covering more than 2,200 acres, Cahokia is the largest native city north of Mexico. Throughout the city's early history, it served as an important economic hub along the Mississippi river, joining far off settlements in the exchange of goods and services.

Of the approximately 70 to 80 mounds remaining today, the largest is that of "Monks Mound," which covers an area nearly as big as the Great Pyramid at Giza. Although the site is thought to have been abandoned some 600 years ago, European settlers, including a group of French monks, inhabited the area during the early 1800s (the monks providing the mound's namesake).

Today, Cahokia is recognized as a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Several hundred thousand tourists from around the world visit the site each year, while archeologists working in the area expand on their research and continue to make new discoveries.

The largest city on the island nation of Sri Lanka, Colombo, has long been a vibrant trade center due in no small part to its strategic location along the trade routes connecting Asia, Africa, and the Middle East. Beginning in ancient times, traders sailing from Greece, Rome, and China all stopped within Colombo's naturally formed harbor while sailing to distant ports.

Sometime around the 8th century AD, Arab settlers and traders hoping to profit from the port made permanent residence in the area of Colombo. However, it wasn't until nearly 600 years later with the arrival of Portuguese explorers that Colombo saw a vast expansion in its economic influence. From the early 1500s on, Colombo was of strategic and economic importance to a number of empires, as control of the city changed hands from the Portuguese to the Dutch, and later still, the English.

In the present-day, Colombo and its port are integral to the overall economy of Sri Lanka, as much of the nation's imports and exports pass through the city.

While no exact date is known for the founding of Genoa, the city's history goes back to ancient times as a settlement founded by the Ligurian people. An excavated cemetery from the 6th century BC shows that the city was once occupied by the Greeks, but it was almost certain to have been established long before this. Under the Romans it was a flourishing trade junction, military port, and market town but it was quickly invaded and pillaged by the Ostrogoths after the fall of the Western Roman Empire. For the next several centuries, Genoa remained a small, obscure fishing center, but it used this time to build up a fleet of merchant ships which would come to dominate the trade routes of the Mediterranean Sea.

In the 10th century AD Genoa gained independence from the local feudatories as one of the city-state "Maritime Republics", having its own lord who reported directly to the Holy Roman Emperor. Most of the actual power in the city was wielded not by this Bishop-President, but by consuls elected by the popular assembly. Genoa's shipbuilding and banking industries helped the young republic to flourish, and Genoa began to expand its borders and establish colonies throughout the Middle East and Northern Africa.

Genoa's prosperity was brought to an end when a Genoese trading post at Caffa imported the Black Death into Europe in 1347. Genoa's economy collapsed and its population fell as the plague took its toll. Drastically weakened, the city fought a series of unsuccessful wars over the next seventy years, losing all of its colony states in the process and falling under the rule of the Visconti of Milan.

The city had a lucky break when its famous son, Christopher Columbus, returned from his discovery of the Americas and donated one-tenth of his income to the local banking institutions. This helped create the alliance which made Genoa a satellite of the wealthy Spanish Empire, a move which led to its economic recovery. Soon the noble families of the city-state had re-amassed their fortunes and the growing city began to attract famed artists and architects. This golden age for Genoa lasted through the 1500's and into the early 1600's, when a return of the plague wiped out half of the citizens of the city in 1656. Genoa's further and steady decline was assured once the world economy began to shift away from the Mediterranean over to the New World when new trade routes were established in the 1700's. Modernization and the world wars of the early 20th century did little to help the city recover.

While Genoa now has the fifth highest economy in Italy and is part of the nation's "industrial triangle", it has never recovered the importance and fame which once gave it the title La Superba, the glorious one of Italy.

Harappa, one of the principal cities of the ancient Indus Valley Civilization, thrived around 2600-1900 BC in what is now modern-day Pakistan. It was a major center of trade, craftsmanship, and administration, demonstrating one of the earliest examples of urban planning in human history. The city's well-organized grid layout, advanced drainage systems, and standardized brick construction highlight the sophistication of the Harappan people.

At its height, Harappa was a bustling hub, connected to other Indus Valley cities such as Mohenjo-daro through an extensive trade network. Artifacts suggest interactions with Mesopotamia, indicating a far-reaching exchange of goods and ideas. The city's economy was supported by agriculture, metallurgy, and craft production, with a script - yet to be fully deciphered - that hints at a complex administrative structure.

By 1900 BC, Harappa experienced decline, possibly due to climate change, shifts in trade routes, or societal disruptions. The city was eventually abandoned, but its legacy endures through ongoing archaeological discoveries that continue to shed light on one of the world's earliest civilizations.

Heidabir, known today as Hedeby, was one of the most significant trading settlements of the Viking Age. Located in present-day northern Germany near the Danish border, it was founded in the late 8th century AD and quickly became a key center for commerce between Scandinavia, the Frankish Empire, and the Slavic regions. Positioned at the crossroads of major trade routes, Heidabir thrived as a hub for goods, culture, and ideas.

During its peak, Heidabir was one of the largest cities in Northern Europe, boasting defensive earthworks, a harbor bustling with merchants, and workshops producing goods such as jewelry, weapons, and textiles. It was also a cultural melting pot, with influences from Norse, Saxon, and Slavic traditions evident in its artifacts and architecture.

The city's prosperity, however, made it a target for rival powers. In 1050 AD, it was sacked and burned by King Harald Hardrada of Norway, marking the beginning of its decline. Over time, Heidabir was abandoned, overshadowed by the rise of nearby Schleswig. Today, the remains of Hedeby are an invaluable archaeological site, offering insights into Viking Age trade, craftsmanship, and daily life. The site has been recognized as a UNESCO World Heritage site, preserving its legacy as one of the great trading centers of medieval Europe.

A city-state in its truest form, Hong Kong is a massive city residing along the southern coast of China. Home to more than seven million residents in the present-day, the island of Hong Kong and its surrounding territories were once home to numerous small settlements, including those constructed by foreign explorers. During the reign of the Chinese Qing Dynasty in the 19th century, trade relations with England dissolved amidst growing concern over the importation of Indian Opium into China. Britain had hoped to offset its increasing expensive tea imports from China by exporting greater amounts of Opium from its Indian colonies to China. However, the Qing rulers objected, and attempted to seize incoming opium shipments, inciting the First Opium War in 1839.

As one of the premier naval powers of the era, Britain had little trouble defeating the Chinese forces and occupying the island of Hong Kong. After nearly 3 years of conflict, the signing of the Treaty of Nanking in 1842 provided Britain with various spoils, including control of Hong Kong. After growing as a British colony for more than 150 years, Hong Kong was finally returned to China in 1997, after a peaceful transfer of power led to the creation of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region. For years, Hong Kong maintained a high degree of autonomy under the "one country, two systems" framework, supporting a separate legal and economic system rooted in free trade. However, in the early 21st century, Beijing asserted greater control over the region, prompting political changes and widespread international concern over the erosion of Hong Kong's autonomy. Despite these shifts, Hong Kong remains a global financial center, distinguished by its highly dense urban landscape, distinctive skyline, and vibrant cultural identity.

Lutetia, the ancient precursor to modern-day Paris, was originally a settlement of the Parisii, a Celtic tribe inhabiting the banks of the Seine River. By the 1st century BC, it had become a thriving trade hub, benefiting from its strategic position along river routes. The Romans conquered Lutetia in 52 BC, incorporating it into their growing empire.

Under Roman rule, Lutetia saw the construction of aqueducts, baths, temples, and an amphitheater, bringing the sophistication of Roman engineering to the city. The Cardo and Decumanus streets structured the urban landscape, while the Forum became the heart of civic life. Despite these advancements, the city was sacked during the Barbarian invasions of the 3rd century AD, gradually leading to its fortification on the Île de la Cité.

By the early medieval period, Lutetia had evolved into the foundation of what would become Paris, gradually growing into one of Europe's most influential cities. Today, remnants of its Roman past, such as the Arènes de Lutèce and the Thermes de Cluny, serve as a reminder of the city's ancient origins.

The town was founded about 1400 AD when Paramesvara, king of Tumasik, fled the invading Majapahit forces and found refuge in the small fishing village there. There, in a port that dominated the Straits of Malacca, he founded the Malay kingdom, which soon extended its authority over the whole of the peninsula and beyond. The successor Sultanate of Malacca soon became a vital layover for Chinese, Arab and European traders to replenish their food and water supplies. Malay rule ended in 1511 when Afonso de Albuquerque seized the city for Portugal.

Over the next century, Malacca became the most important trading port in Southeast Asia, with the Portuguese constructing extensive docks and warehouses to export sugar and rice. Port expansion continued under the Dutch East Indies Company, who captured and fortified the city in 1641 AD. British and Dutch rivalry for control of the strategic straits was settled in favor of the English by the Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1824, and Malacca became one of the original "Strait Settlements" in the British Empire. Heavy silting of the harbor estuary, combined with the growth of Singapore, led to Malacca's decline as a commercial center.

After the dissolution of the crown colony following Japanese occupation during World War II, Malacca became part of the independent Malayan Union in 1957 AD, which evolved into the modern nation of Malaysia. Prior to the war, the surrounding region had seen the development of rubber as a commercial crop; after the war, rubber became Malacca's primary export, making the city again a major port. Dredging and the construction of seawalls has made the city accessible to deep-draft ocean-going freighters and container ships, and the building of a railroad and modern highways into the city has made it an important cargo terminus in the region once more.

Home to one of the largest traditional Arab markets in the world, Marrakech, Morocco, was founded in 1062 AD by King Youssef bin Tashufin to serve as the capital of the Almoravid Dynasty. The city's reputation as a commercial center and trade hub can be attributed to its earliest roots, when caravans stopped in Marrakech to rest and regroup before continuing along the surrounding trade routes. Marrakech's famous market, found in the Jemaa el-Fnaa square in the old city, features elaborate stalls with vendors selling everything from local cuisine to crafts and other items directed at tourists. Performances of varying types are also common in the square, with snake charmers, dancers, and other forms of entertainment continuing into the night. Home to more than one million residents in the present day, Marrakech has seen an influx of expatriates and other Europeans moving to the city for a change of pace.

Located on Port Phillip Bay, on the southeast coast of Australia, Melbourne became a permanent settlement in 1835 AD when Englishman John Batman negotiated a treaty with local Aborigines to purchase 500,000 acres there. It is distinguished from other Australian cities in that it is the only one founded by private enterprise rather than the crown. Melbourne was incorporated as a city in 1847, but its main growth came in the 1850s following discovery of gold at nearby Bendigo and Ballarat. The town served as the principle port and supply hub for the ensuing gold rush, and its population increased from 25 to 40 thousand in a few months.

The economic boom peaked in the 1880s, by which time Melbourne was considered the richest city in the world and the largest in the British Empire after London. As a result of the boom, commercial buildings and banks, terrace apartments and palatial mansions sprang up across the city. But the gold boom ended in 1891 AD, bringing bankruptcy to many businesses and economic depression; the financial crisis in Melbourne contributed to the Australian banking panic of 1893.

The city's banking and industry recovered and Melbourne grew slowly through the early part of the 20th Century. At the time of federation, creating the Commonwealth of Australia in 1901 AD, Melbourne was important enough to become the seat of government (until transferred to the new capital at Canberra in 1927). In the aftermath of World War II, the city's economic influence was strengthened even more by the influx of immigrants, primarily from southern Europe, bringing new businesses and industries. Major transportation and housing projects marked the 1970s through 1990s; recent substantial international investment has given the city a diversified economy particularly strong in banking and finance, manufacturing, shipping, research, information technology and tourism.

One of Russia's oldest cities, Novgorod was founded in the 9th century and quickly became a major political and economic center. As the heart of the Novgorod Republic, it played a crucial role in trade between the Baltic and the Byzantine Empire, establishing itself as a key hub of the Hanseatic League.

During its golden age in the 12th and 13th centuries, Novgorod was renowned for its sophisticated governance, vibrant culture, and impressive architectural achievements, including the Saint Sophia Cathedral, which still stands today. The city successfully resisted Mongol domination, unlike much of Russia, but later fell under the control of the Grand Duchy of Moscow in the 15th century.

Today, Novgorod, now known as Veliky Novgorod, is celebrated for its well-preserved medieval architecture and rich historical significance. It remains a major cultural and tourist destination, offering insight into Russia's deep-rooted heritage and traditions.

The Ninsi tribes of the Upper Volta region had long been divided by rivalries and warfare until 1441 AD, when the semi-legendary warrior Wurbi united his people. This victory gave rise to the Mossi Empire, with Wogodogo-later known in French as Ouagadougou-as its capital. Situated at a crossroads of regional trade, Ouagadougou drew merchants from across West Africa, as well as caravans from both the Atlantic and the Sahel.

For centuries, the Mossi resisted incursions by powerful neighbors, including the Songhai and the Mali Empires, while maintaining trade in gold, salt, and textiles. Ouagadougou grew into a cosmopolitan center of governance, with the emperor presiding over a court that balanced traditional Mossi customs with Islamic influences brought by traders and scholars.

In 1896, French colonial forces under Paul Voulet and Julien Chanoine swept into the region, seeking to consolidate France's West African holdings. The Mossi were defeated, and Ouagadougou became part of French West Africa. After independence in 1960, it was named the capital of the Republic of Upper Volta, later renamed Burkina Faso, retaining its role as the political and cultural heart of the nation.

Samarkand is one of the oldest cities in the world, located in the region of Central Asia known as Transoxiana. Built in the fertile Zerafshan River valley, Samarkand had the benefit of abundant natural resources and food; more significantly, it sat astride the Silk Road, the main trade route between the Orient and the West. Founded c. 700 BC by the Sogdians, by the time Alexander the Great conquered it in 329 BC Samarkand was one of the world's richest and most important cities.

The city remained a mercantile power for centuries after, growing ever richer on taxes imposed on caravans along the Silk Road; it also served as a conduit for culture and innovations between the East and the West. Legend has it that the secret of papermaking was obtained from two Chinese prisoners by the Muslims around 751 AD, which led to the creation of the first paper mill in the Islamic world in Samarkand. From there the knowledge of linen paper spread throughout the Muslim lands, and onward to Europe.

Marco Polo, in his account of his journey along the Silk Road to China, described Samarkand as "a very large and splendid city." In 1370, Tamerlane, founder of the Timurid Empire, made Samarkand his capital. During the next 35 years, he rebuilt, several times over, the city, populating it with skilled artisans, craftsmen, merchants and scholars from across the empire, making it the cultural and commercial center of all Central Asia.

But the opening of sea trade routes between the Orient and Europe, and the exploitation of the newly-discovered Americas, made it a backwater. The population declined precipitously, and for a period it was uninhabited. Only after it became a provincial capital in the expanding Russian Empire in 1887 did Samarkand became an important economic center again.

Founded by the Soninke people around the 11th century AD, Segou rose to prominence as a center of agriculture and trade along the Niger River. Its fertile lands supported farming and fishing, while its markets connected it to other great cities such as Djenne and Timbuktu. The city reached its first golden age under Biton Coulibaly (1712-1755), who transformed it into the capital of the Bambara Kingdom.

Biton's disciplined army and administrative reforms strengthened Segou's control over surrounding territories. Under Mamary Coulibaly, Segou joined forces with Djenne and Macina, creating a powerful alliance that dominated the middle Niger region. The city's reputation for craftsmanship and scholarship grew, with artisans producing fine textiles and metalwork.

Around 1860, the city fell to El Hadj Umar Tall, a Toucouleur conqueror and Islamic reformer, who converted the populace to Islam. French colonial forces arrived in the 1890s, incorporating Segou into their growing West African empire. The French made Segou the administrative center for the Office du Niger irrigation project, cementing its role as a regional hub.

Records and archeological excavations show that the island of modern-day Singapore has been occupied from about the second century AD - the small island was originally part of the Sumatran Empire and went by the name of Temasek, or "sea town." For unknown reasons the area slid into a decline in the 14th century, and for the next few centuries the island's population consisted mostly of small villages of fishermen.

This all changed on January 29, 1819, when the British statesman Sir Thomas Stamford Raffles landed on the island and signed a treaty to develop the southern portion into a British trading post. Singapore officially became a British colony in 1824 when the British East India Company gained control of the entire island. The island city grew steadily as it became an important hub for trade and commerce in the Pacific.

In 1941, the Japanese invaded Singapore and in six short days gained control of the city and its military base. The Battle of Singapore, as it came to be known, was the worst recorded military disaster in British history and the city became an important base for the Japanese for the rest of World War II. The British regained control of the island a month after Japan's surrender in 1945.

After the war, Singapore started on the road to independence. In 1955 the city was allowed to hold its first general election, but delegations sent to England demanding self-rule were met with resistance until 1959. Four years later the small city-state nation declared formal independence from the British Empire and quickly joined the Federation of Malaysia. However, major ideological conflicts between Singapore and the Federation soured the relationship and two years later Singapore officially declared complete sovereignty.

Since its independence, fortunes for the city-state have increased, with massive improvements in standards of living, the economy, and education. Singapore is now the fourth wealthiest country in the world (in terms of GDP per capita) with booming tourism and medical industries.

Tyre is an ancient Phoenician city located in the southern portion of Lebanon, approximately 12 miles north of the Lebanese border with Israel. Tyre was built on the mainland and a nearby offshore island. Founded in approximately 2700 BC by colonists from the city of Sidon, the city soon grew to rival and eventually surpass its sister city as a fishing and mercantile center for Phoenicia. In the 9th century BC settlers from Tyre founded the city of Carthage in North Africa.

Like Sidon, Tyre is frequently mentioned in the Bible. Relations between Israel and Tyre were generally cordial; in fact, Hiram, king of Tyre, furnished building materials for Solomon's Temple in Jerusalem.

Because of its wealth and strategic location, Tyre was subjected to repeated attacks by whatever power happened to be rampaging in the area. In the 8th and 7th centuries BC it was under Assyrian dominance. In the 6th century BC it withstood a long siege by King Nebuchadnezzar II of Babylon, though it was captured shortly thereafter by the Persians. Then, in the third century BC, Alexander of Macedon happened by at the head of his army.

Alexander's siege of Tyre lasted some seven months. To defeat the stubborn defenders, Alexander completely destroyed the mainland city and used the rubble to construct a causeway out to the island. After capturing the city, the great Alexander showed his appreciation for the citizens' valor and courage by putting 10,000 of them to death and selling 30,000 others into slavery. Though it revived somewhat under later Egyptian and Roman rule, Tyre never fully recovered from Alexander's exuberance.

Today Tyre is a city of approximately 120,000 residents. Because of its proximity to Israel, it tends to suffer whenever violence occurs along the Lebanese-Israeli border, which seems to happen with depressing frequency, as bombs, bullets and missiles from all sides make the ancient ruins even more ruined. Still, Tyre has survived worse than this - much worse - and it will hopefully live to see peace and prosperity once again.

One of the earliest Phoenician settlements in North Africa, Utica was traditionally founded around the 8th century BC, predating even Carthage. Situated near the mouth of the Medjerda River in present-day Tunisia, it quickly became an important commercial hub due to its proximity to Mediterranean trade routes. As one of the leading Phoenician colonies, Utica played a vital role in regional commerce, facilitating trade between Carthage, other Punic settlements, and the wider Mediterranean world.

Despite its early prominence, Utica was eventually overshadowed by the rise of Carthage. However, during the Third Punic War (149-146 BC), Utica sided with Rome against its Punic rival. As a reward for its allegiance, Rome granted Utica special status, making it the capital of the newly established Roman province of Africa. Under Roman rule, the city flourished as a center of agriculture and trade, benefitting from the fertile lands surrounding it.

By the late Roman period, however, Utica began to decline due to economic shifts, changing trade patterns, and the growing importance of other cities like Carthage. Eventually, the city faded into obscurity. Today, the ruins of Utica offer glimpses into its storied past, with remnants of Roman villas, mosaics, and a forum standing as a testament to its historical significance.

Veligrad, known today as Staré Mesto in the Czech Republic, was an important center of the Great Moravian Empire in the 9th century. Situated near the Morava river, it served as a political, cultural, and religious hub during the early medieval period. The city played a key role in the spread of Christianity in Central Europe, with Saints Cyril and Methodius arriving in the region to introduce the Glagolitic script and translate religious texts into Old Church Slavonic.

At its height, Veligrad was a fortified settlement featuring palaces, churches, and extensive trade networks. However, the Great Moravian Empire declined due to internal strife and external pressures from the invading Magyars, leading to the city's gradual abandonment by the early 10th century.

Today, archaeological excavations at the site have uncovered remnants of fortifications, religious structures, and everyday artifacts. The legacy of Veligrad lives on through historical reconstructions and cultural celebrations in the region.

Lying at the junction of two navigable rivers, the Vilnia and the Neris, some 194 miles from the Baltic, Vilnius was settled as a trading post deep in the woodlands of Lithuania. The town is first mentioned in written records in 1323 AD, when German Jews were invited to relocate to the capital of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania by Duke Gediminas, who promised religious tolerance and commercial opportunities. Over the following decades under the duke and his sons the duchy expanded until it encompassed most of modern Lithuania, Belarus, the Ukraine, Transnistria, and portions of Poland and northern Russia. With the Union of Lublin in 1569, the city became an important mercantile center in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth.

During this period, Vilnius expanded dramatically. Migrants were welcomed by the authorities, and thousands of Slavs, Germans and Jews moved into the booming city. Polish kings and Lithuanian dukes undertook extensive building projects, not the least of which was fortification with extensive city walls and nine fortified gates. In 1579, King Stefan Bathory founded the institution that would evolve into the Vilniaus universitetus, the oldest university in the Baltic States, which quickly became one of the most important scientific and cultural centers in the Commonwealth. Guilds of several types were established, and the city served as the primary center for trade between Scandinavia and western Europe and the interior of Poland and northern Russia.

But the 17th Century brought disaster. During the Russo-Polish War of 1654-1667, the city was captured by Tsarist troops, pillaged and burned and its population massacred. In 1710, an outbreak of the bubonic plague killed an estimated 35,000 citizens. A series of devastating fires destroyed much of the city during the first half of the 1700s. In 1795, the third partition of Poland saw Vilnius become part of the Russian Empire, where it remained until the Soviet-Lithuanian Treaty of 1920, when Lithuanian independence was recognized. However, in 1922 Poland annexed the region, and the city would be under nominal Polish rule until World War II, after which it was again occupied by Russian forces. Not until 1990, with the secession of the Lithuanian SSR from collapsing Soviet Russia, would Vilnius again be self-ruled, becoming the capital of modern Lithuania.

As part of the region once known as the "Spice Islands," Zanzibar, found in Tanzania in East Africa, has long captured the eye of traders sailing from around the world. At one time, Zanzibar was the world's leading producer of cloves, in addition to a number of other spices including nutmeg and cinnamon. In the modern day, Zanzibar is also heavily reliant on the tourism industry, which provides a steady income in addition to the agricultural industries.

Zurich, the largest city in modern Switzerland, traces its early history to the Romans, who are thought to have founded the city some 2,000 years ago as a minor fortress. Zurich's growth into a major international center of trade and business wouldn't come until the 18th century, when vast expansions took place and the city grew exponentially.

Zurich is presently a crucial economic center for Switzerland and Europe as a whole, with many of the world's largest banks and financial institutions having central offices within the City. The Swiss Stock Exchange, having existed for more than 150 years, is also based in Zurich.

Nestled in the heart of ancient Scotland, Abernethy was an early Pictish settlement with significant religious and political importance. Founded before the early medieval period, the settlement became a center of Christian learning and governance, eventually housing one of Scotland's oldest surviving round towers.

By the 11th century AD, Abernethy was an influential religious hub under Pictish and later Scottish rule, serving as a monastic center. The establishment of religious institutions solidified its prominence, with connections to the expanding Christian church across the British Isles. The area was also historically linked to Scottish royalty, with several significant treaties and power shifts occurring in its vicinity.

Over time, Abernethy's political influence waned, giving way to larger centers like St. Andrews. However, its religious significance endured, and the town remains an important historical and archaeological site. Today, Abernethy is a quiet Scottish village, but its well-preserved round tower and medieval heritage continue to attract scholars and visitors interested in Scotland's early history.

Aksum, located in modern-day Ethiopia, was one of the great civilizations of the ancient world. Established around the 4th century BC, it became a major trading empire, controlling key routes between Africa, Arabia, and the Mediterranean. The city was renowned for its impressive stone obelisks and its written script known as Ge'ez.

By the 4th century AD, Aksum had adopted Christianity under King Ezana, making it the second ever Christian state in the world. This religious transformation led to the construction of magnificent churches and monasteries, many of which still stand today. The kingdom maintained its influence through maritime trade, minting its own coinage and maintaining diplomatic ties with the Roman and Persian Empires.

However, the rise of Islamic powers in the 7th century, along with environmental changes and shifting trade routes, led to Aksum's gradual decline. By the 10th century, the city had lost much of its former prestige. Today, Aksum remains a site of historical and religious significance, with its ancient stelae fields and churches attracting archaeologists and pilgrims alike.

One of West Africa's most ancient cities, Djenne was founded around the 12th century in present-day Mali. Strategically located along trade routes connecting the Sahara to the West African interior, it became a vital hub for commerce, particularly in salt, gold, and textiles.

Djenne reached its peak in the Middle Ages as part of the Mali Empire, serving as a center for Islamic scholarship and culture. The city's most famous landmark, the Great Mosque of Djenne, built in the 13th century and later reconstructed in 1907, remains the largest mud-brick structure in the world.

Today, Djenne is a UNESCO World Heritage Site, renowned for its unique Sudano-Sahelian architecture and rich history. Though modern challenges such as climate change and urbanization threaten its preservation, efforts are ongoing to maintain its cultural and historical significance.

Located along the Danube River in modern-day Austria, Enns is one of the oldest towns in Central Europe, tracing its origins to the Roman settlement of Lauriacum in the 1st century AD. The town became a key military outpost along the northern frontier of the Roman Empire and later developed into an important medieval trading center.

During the Middle Ages, Enns flourished as part of the Duchy of Austria, receiving official town status in 1212. Its strategic position along trade routes allowed it to grow into a significant center of commerce and governance, with its fortified walls standing as lasting testaments to its historical importance.

Over the centuries, Enns endured numerous conflicts, including the Napoleonic Wars, which saw parts of the town occupied and damaged. Despite these upheavals, the town remained resilient and continued to thrive as a regional hub.

Today, Enns is known for its well-preserved architecture, including the landmark Enns Tower, and remains a site of cultural heritage in Austria. While no longer a major political power, it retains a distinct identity as one of Austria's most historically significant towns.

The original site of the city lay upon a hill overlooking a lake, settled sometime during the Paleolithic Period and later by a tribe of Ligurian and pre-Celtic peoples. Around 500 BC Geneva became a fortified town inhabited by the Celts before it was taken by the Romans in 121 BC. Ownership of the city continued to flip between the warring neighboring states, before landing in the hands of the German Emperor in 1033 AD. By this time Geneva had become an important ecclesiastical seat, with the bishop of the city a direct vassal of the Holy Roman Emperor as a territorially vested prince.

Control of Geneva was contested between the nearby Savoy dukes and the Catholic bishop for the next five centuries. When the last ruling bishop fled the city in 1533, the citizens of Geneva made a risky move in an attempt to rid themselves of both the Catholic rule and the Savoyards - the city allied itself with the Protestant state of Bern and declared themselves a Protestant sovereignty in 1536. While this did give power back to the people of Geneva, it also alienated the city from the surrounding Catholic Swiss population for generations. The Protestant reformationist John Calvin came to reside in the city shortly thereafter in 1536 and stayed for the next thirty years until his death, becoming a new spiritual leader in the absence of the bishop. The city remained a stronghold of the Protestant faith for many years to come, although a large section of the historic section reverted back to Catholicism by the early 17th century.

Geneva was briefly annexed by France during the French Revolution, but in 1814 it was admitted into the Swiss Confederation at the Congress of Vienna, its jurisdiction expanded to cover the fifteen neighboring Savoyard parishes. The Congress expressly provided that these Catholic Savoyard parishes would be protected from religious persecution and, in return, guaranteed the city's own neutrality. Tensions continued to run high between the Catholics and Protestants until 1907 when Geneva passed a law mandating the official separation of Church and State - no religious body has received aid from a state or municipal power since.

After World War I Geneva became the seat of the League of Nations in 1919, giving it the status of "the international city". Its new reputation continued after World War II when the European headquarters of the United Nations was seated in the city, bringing along with it numerous other international bodies and organizations. Tourism and business have thrived in the city since.

Huari was the capital of the Wari civilization, a powerful Andean empire that flourished between the 6th and 10th centuries AD in present-day Peru. Situated in the Ayacucho Valley, Huari was one of the first large urban centers in the Andes, covering an area of several square kilometers and supporting a population of tens of thousands at its peak.

The Wari civilization pioneered many advancements, including extensive road networks, terraced agriculture, and large-scale urban planning. Huari served as the administrative and religious heart of the empire, with well-organized infrastructure and monumental architecture that reflected the state's centralized control.

By the 10th century, the Wari civilization declined due to environmental changes and possible internal conflicts. Huari was gradually abandoned, though its influence persisted in later Andean cultures, including the Inca. Today, its ruins remain a crucial archaeological site, offering insight into the pre-Incan societies that shaped Andean history.

According to ancient legends, the holy city of Ife is the birthplace of the Yoruba, the largest ethnic group in West Africa. In their mythology, Ife was the place where Oduduwa, brother to the supreme god Obatala, climbed down from the heavens and threw a handful of dirt on the primordial ocean, thus creating the land on which Ife would stand. The meaning of the word "ife" in Yoruba is "expansion," and the city is believed not only the birthplace of the Yoruba but of all mankind.

Whatever the truth of its founding, by the 11th Century AD Ife was the capital of a well-established kingdom spanning what is now Nigeria. Within a century, the city was exerting considerable religious and political influence in the area, especially over the Edo kingdom of Benin to the southeast. Although the Yoruba cities of Benin and Oyo would become more politically significant states, Ife remained the spiritual center. Ife managed to avoid the attacks by the Islamic Fulani that toppled Oyo, but was weakened by struggles with Owu to the southwest in the 1820s for control of the slave trade. In 1882, Ife was largely destroyed when a combined army of Ibadan and Modakeke warriors sacked the holy city.

Although Ife remained a city holy to the Yoruba, its political influence was ended by 1900 AD. Following the Napoleonic Wars, the British established a series of ports and trading posts in West Africa. In 1885, British claims to a West African sphere of influence were recognized formally by the other European powers, and the following year the Royal Niger Company was chartered by the crown. Nigeria remained part of the British Empire until it gained independence in 1960. During the colonial period, Ife was largely ignored except by European scholars and Yoruba pilgrims.

The often contentious debate over Jerusalem, holy city to the followers of Islam, Judaism, and Christianity, has raged for decades since the city's establishment as the capital of Israel. With portions of the city having been constructed over 6,000 years ago, Jerusalem is one of the oldest known cities in the world. Throughout its tumultuous history, Jerusalem has come under siege numerous times, as far-reaching empires and local kingdoms alike struggled to wrest control of the city from one another.

The oldest area in Jerusalem, the City of David, is said to have been founded by the legendary King David sometime during the 1st millennium BC. Over the centuries that followed, immigrants and refugees toiling under a number of kings and emperors worked to expand the city. By the time the Islamic Caliphates rose to power in the 6th century AD, Jerusalem had already been controlled by the Macedonians, the Romans, and the Byzantine Empire.

The past century has arguably been the most controversial in Jerusalem's history, following the establishment of the Jewish state of Israel and Israel's subsequent annexation of Jerusalem following the Six-Day War. In the time since, Israel's control of Jerusalem has been one of the major hurdles preventing a resolution to the longstanding Israeli-Palestinian conflict.

The ancient city of Kathmandu, capital to the highly-elevated country of Nepal, traces its history back almost 2,000 years to the dawn of the first millennium AD. Steeped in both Hindu and Buddhist traditions, the city of Kathmandu was named after a great temple found at the site known as "Kasthamandap," said to have been constructed from the timber of a single tree in the 16th century.

Long before the city's establishment, the Kathmandu Valley was inhabited by the Newar people, ancestors to the modern Newars who continue to live throughout Nepal. The Newars are responsible for many of the unique characteristics that have come to be recognized as symbolic of Nepal, including the pagoda style architecture that was adapted over the centuries from both Chinese and Indian designs.

During the reign of the Malla Dynasty, who ruled Kathmandu for over 500 years beginning in the 12th century, many of the city's most notable temples and pagodas were constructed. Though the city was often fraught with conflict and turmoil, leading to the destruction of many of the earliest structures, dozens of magnificent examples remain today. In 2006, the collective of monuments within Kathmandu was designated as a UNESCO World Heritage site, acknowledging the cultural significance of the historic city.

In the present-day, Kathmandu is home to more than one million residents, with an economy supported by the production of local crafts as well as an increasingly large tourist population. As the city continues to grow and modernize, the local government faces a difficult task in dealing with urbanization and pollution issues.

The ancient Olmec settlement of La Venta, found in central Mexico, is thought by archeologists to have been an important cultural center that also contributed greatly to trade in the region. The structures of La Venta are unique in that the surrounding region had no stone available for construction, leaving the Olmec to build everything from clay and fill dirt. Although large portions of the site have been lost to present-day construction, what has been excavated indicates that La Venta held ceremonial significance for the Olmec. Numerous monuments and sculptures adorn the complex, with burial tombs and altars having also been discovered. Of the iconic "Colossal Heads" carved by the Olmec, La Venta features four of the most famous. Weighing several tons each, archeologists can only theorize as to how the Olmec managed to acquire the stone for these massive carvings. Unfortunately, due to ongoing construction taking place in the area, it appears unlikely that further excavations will take place at La Venta in the near future.

Lhasa is one of the highest cities in the world, located almost 12,000 ft above sea level. Lhasa literally translates to "place of the gods", a name change from Rasa in the early 7th century (which meant "goat's place"). The recorded history of the city starts around this time when Songstan Gampo became the leader of the Tibetan Empire and moved the capital to Lhasa in 637 AD. Gampo soon converted to Buddhism (which he learned of from his wives), and began the construction of Buddhist statues and temples. While the political power of the city slowly waned over the centuries (the monarchy dissolved in the 9th century), Lhasa continued to rise in prominence as a religious center. During this time the first Dalai Lama, the spiritual leader of the Tibetan Buddhists, rose to power in 1391.

In 1642 the fifth Dalai Lama, Lobsang Gyatso, began to wield real political power, in addition to his spiritual authority, and unified the loosely assembled Tibetan tribes into one country. Lhasa was named both the spiritual and political capital of the new country. By the time the West began sending explorers to the city in the early 20th century, nearly half of Lhasa's population were practicing Buddhist monks.

In 1950 China invaded Tibet and many people fled the city, including the 14th Dalai Lama, and sought refuge in exile in India. The attack is classified as a "peaceful liberation" by the Chinese, but the Tibetans, U.S. Congress, and other prominent military and political figures consider it an unprovoked invasion. Many of the remaining monks and nuns in the city revolted and held peaceful demonstrations against the Chinese oppressors, which led to an imposed restriction upon the monasteries. Re-education programs were instituted in an attempt to realign the Buddhists with Communist views, while also requiring the protesters to denounce both the Dalai Lama and Tibet's independence. Many monks and nuns refused to cooperate and were sent to prison; those who escaped fled to India.

The question of Tibetan independence is still a major source of controversy in Lhasa and in the rest of the world, with many world leaders continuing to condemn the Chinese treatment of the Tibetan people. Talks between the reigning Dalai Lama in exile and the Chinese government began in May 2008 discussing Tibet's independence and autonomous rule, but little has changed as a result.

Msoura is an ancient archaeological site located in present-day Morocco, best known for its massive stone circle, the Msoura Cromlech. Dating back to the pre-Roman period, the site is believed to be linked to the ancient Berber kingdom of Mauretania, which flourished in North Africa before becoming a client state of Rome. The cromlech consists of 167 standing stones surrounding a central tumulus, suggesting its use as a burial or ceremonial site.

The origins and purpose of the Msoura Cromlech remain a topic of scholarly debate. Some theories propose that it was a royal burial site, possibly for a Mauretanian king, while others suggest it had religious or astronomical significance. The construction of such a megalithic structure indicates the advanced social and engineering capabilities of the Berber people of the time.

Today, Msoura stands as one of Morocco's most enigmatic ancient sites. While less known compared to other North African ruins, it attracts historians and archaeologists interested in Berber heritage and early civilization in the region.

One of the most significant religious centers of ancient Mesopotamia, Nippur was located in what is now southern Iraq. It served as the spiritual heart of the Sumerian and Akkadian civilizations, revered as the city of Enlil, the supreme deity of the Sumerian pantheon. Nippur's central temple, the Ekur, was believed to be the cosmic bond between heaven and earth.

Despite lacking direct political power, Nippur's religious importance ensured its influence throughout multiple empires. It remained a major site of scholarship and temple activity well into the Parthian period. However, as Mesopotamia's power shifted toward Babylon and other centers, Nippur gradually declined and was abandoned.

Excavations in the 19th and 20th centuries uncovered vast cuneiform archives, offering invaluable insights into Sumerian and Akkadian literature, law, and administration. Today, its ruins remain an important site for archaeologists studying ancient Mesopotamian culture.

Onondaga, located in present-day New York, is the historical and spiritual heart of the Haudenosaunee (Iroquois) Confederacy. Established centuries before European contact, it became the central meeting place for the Grand Council, where representatives from the five (later six) nations gathered to make decisions. Known as the "Central Fire," Onondaga played a crucial role in maintaining the unity and governance of the confederacy.

During the colonial period, Onondaga was a key player in diplomacy, balancing relations with European powers such as the French, British, and Dutch. However, the American Revolutionary War disrupted traditional alliances, and Onondaga settlements suffered attacks from both British and American forces. Despite these hardships, the Onondaga Nation persisted, maintaining its cultural traditions and governance.

Today, Onondaga remains a sovereign nation with a deep cultural legacy. It continues to be the site of the Haudenosaunee Grand Council and an important center for preserving indigenous governance, language, and traditions.

Known today as Petra, Raqmu was the capital of the Nabataean Kingdom, flourishing as a major trading hub in the deserts of modern-day Jordan. Established as early as the 4th century BC, it lay at the crossroads of key trade routes connecting Arabia, Egypt, and the Mediterranean. The Nabataeans, masterful engineers, carved intricate structures and water management systems into the red sandstone cliffs, making Raqmu one of the most visually striking cities of antiquity.

At its height in the 1st century AD, Raqmu prospered through trade in incense, spices, and textiles. However, its fortunes waned following the annexation by the Roman Empire in 106 AD and the later shift of trade routes, leading to its gradual decline. By the early Islamic period, the city had largely been abandoned.

Rediscovered by Swiss explorer Johann Ludwig Burckhardt in 1812, Raqmu remains one of the most iconic archaeological sites in the world. Today, it is a UNESCO World Heritage Site and one of Jordan's most visited tourist attractions, renowned for its rock-cut architecture, particularly the Al-Khazneh ("The Treasury").

Founded in 1626 on the northeastern coast of present-day Massachusetts, Salem quickly became one of the most important ports in colonial New England. Originally settled by English Puritans seeking religious autonomy, the town was named after the Hebrew word Shalom, meaning "peace." By the late 17th century, Salem had grown into a thriving center of trade, shipbuilding, and fishing, playing a key role in early American commerce.

Salem is best known for the infamous Witch Trials of 1692, during which mass hysteria led to the execution of nineteen people accused of witchcraft. The trials, fueled by superstition, fear, and political tensions, left a lasting scar on the town's history and became one of the most infamous episodes of early American colonial life. Despite the turmoil, Salem recovered and continued to prosper, becoming a major hub for maritime trade during the 18th and early 19th centuries, with its merchants reaching markets as far as China and the East Indies.

By the mid-19th century, Salem's prominence as a trading power waned, overshadowed by the rise of larger ports like Boston and New York. However, the city adapted, developing industries such as textiles and manufacturing while preserving its rich historical legacy.

Today, Salem embraces its past, drawing visitors from around the world to its museums, preserved colonial architecture, and sites related to the Witch Trials. The city is a cultural and educational hub, home to the renowned Peabody Essex Museum and a vibrant tourism industry centered around its colonial and maritime history.

Perched on the estuary of the Yangtze River, Shanghai grew from a modest fishing village into one of China's most important economic and cultural centers. Though settled earlier, it was officially recognized as a market town in 1292 under the Yuan dynasty. Its strategic position on China's eastern seaboard made it an increasingly vital port, particularly under the Ming and Qing dynasties.

Shanghai's modern rise began in the 19th century, when it became one of the key treaty ports opened to foreign trade following the First Opium War. International settlements established by the British, French, and Americans transformed the city into a global crossroads of commerce, finance, and cosmopolitan life. The city's skyline rapidly changed, with Western-style architecture and institutions standing beside traditional Chinese quarters.

In the early 20th century, Shanghai earned a reputation as the "Paris of the East," a vibrant, if often tumultuous, center of industry, nightlife, and political intrigue. It played a critical role in the formation of the Chinese Communist Party in 1921 and endured brutal occupation during the Second Sino-Japanese War.

Today, Shanghai is one of the world's largest and most dynamic metropolises - China's financial powerhouse and a symbol of its global ambitions. Its enduring legacy as a gateway between East and West makes it a formidable force in diplomacy and trade.

Shedet, known to the Greeks as Crocodilopolis, was an important religious and administrative center in ancient Egypt. Located in the Faiyum Oasis, it was founded during the Old Kingdom (c. 2700-2200 BC) and became known for its worship of Sobek, the crocodile-headed god associated with fertility and military prowess. The city's prosperity was tied to the Faiyum region's extensive irrigation projects, which transformed the area into a thriving agricultural hub.

During the Ptolemaic period (305-30 BC), Shedet remained a major religious site, with its temple dedicated to Sobek attracting pilgrims from across Egypt. The Ptolemies integrated Greek elements into the city's culture while maintaining its deep-rooted Egyptian traditions. The sacred crocodiles housed in the temple, believed to be incarnations of Sobek, were cared for by priests and venerated by worshippers.

With the spread of Christianity and the decline of ancient Egyptian religion, Shedet lost its prominence. Over time, the city's ruins were buried beneath layers of history, though traces of its grand temple and irrigation systems remain. Today, modern Faiyum stands near the ancient site, with archaeologists uncovering new insights into the city's role in Egypt's religious and economic history.

The walled Vatican city-state, officially established in 1929, serves as the epicenter for the Catholic Church and its millions of followers throughout the world today. Founded as a means of resolving the ongoing conflicts between the Pope and the Kingdom of Italy over land ownership and control of Rome, the Lateran Treaty laid the groundwork for an independently governed city-state within the boundaries of Rome itself. As the sovereign of Vatican City, the Pope is the only absolute monarch left in Europe, and he holds supreme authority over all branches of the Vatican's government. The city itself is known for the many incredible works of art housed in its museums and cathedrals. St. Peter's Basilica and the Sistine Chapel are perhaps the best known sites within the Vatican, featuring works by Michelangelo, Raphael, and Botticelli.

The city of Wittenberg, a small settlement in central Germany, claims a unique stature in history as the birthplace of the Protestant Reformation incited by Martin Luther in the 16th century. Although the city was well-established within the Holy Roman Empire as the seat of power for the Elector of Saxony, it was Martin Luther's revolt that put Wittenberg on the map.

While teaching theology at the University of Wittenberg, Martin Luther first expressed his distaste for the selling of indulgences - the process of paying the Catholic Church for the forgiveness of sin. In 1517, Martin Luther famously nailed his Ninety-Five Theses to the door of the Castle Church in Wittenberg, sparking the Protestant Reformation across Europe. Although it would take more than a century before the religious wars spurred by the Reformation were resolved, Wittenberg was always remembered as the wellspring for Martin Luther's dissidence.

More recently, Wittenberg was consumed by the conflicts of World War II, although much of the city's historic center was spared from the devastation of the allied bombing campaign. Following the conclusion of the war, Wittenberg was occupied by the Soviets and became part of East Germany in 1949, where it remained until the reunification of Germany in 1990.